eChapters

Introduction

Global food productivity will have to rise significantly to satisfy an expanding world population. Increased vegetable production is one option towards the efficient conversion of natural resources into food stuffs. As a group, vegetables are a diverse range of herbaceous plants that do not belong to any particular botanical species, genus or family. Individual members may be at various stages of domestication. Vegetables are typically annual herbaceous species, whose plant parts (leaves, stems, flowers, fruits, roots or tubers) are consumed as fresh or as cooked product, and as an additional source of vitamins, minerals, fibre, phytochemicals, protein and/or calories. Health benefits are also claimed for some vegetable species, mainly due to antioxidant activity and capacity to scavenge free radicals.

Domesticated plants have been fundamentally altered from their wild relatives; these species have been moved into and adapted to new environments. They have become dependent on the farmer’s hand and they have been reshaped to meet human needs and wants. Modern crops are the results of thousands of years of these evolutionary processes. Like all biological evolution, crop evolution involves two fundamental process; the creation of diversity and selection (Harris and Hillman, 1989). Crop evolution is distinguished by two types of selection; one natural and another artificial or conscious. These evolutionary processes must continue in order for agriculture, a living and evolving system to remain viable.

In the hands of plant breeder’s sexual hybridization is a powerful tool for producing superior plants by combining characters distributed in different members of a species or different species of a genus. Genetic variability within the species has been efficiently utilized by breeders in their efforts to improve crops. However, the existing variability in a breeding population may not be sufficient for modern plant breeding purposes, and thus great efforts have been made to broaden the existing gene pool of crops through utilization of wild germplasm.

1. Introduction
Enzymes are specialized proteins that act as biological catalysts, facilitating and accelerating biochemical reactions within living organisms. They are essential for various physiological processes, including digestion, metabolism, and energy production. In fish and other aquatic animals, enzymes play a pivotal role in breaking down complex nutrients found in their diets into simpler, absorbable components. This enzymatic action is vital for maximizing nutrient utilization, promoting growth, and ensuring overall health. The inclusion of enzymes in aquaculture feeds has garnered significant attention over recent years, particularly as the industry strives to meet the increasing global demand for fish and seafood products. With aquaculture now accounting for over 50% of the fish consumed worldwide, there is an urgent need for innovative strategies that enhance the sustainability and efficiency of fish farming operations. One such strategy is the supplementation of feeds with exogenous enzymes, which has been shown to improve feed digestibility, promote better growth performance, and mitigate environmental impacts associated with aquaculture.
1.1. The Role of Enzymes in Nutrient Digestion
Fish diets often consist of a combination of protein, carbohydrates, and lipids sourced from both animal and plant materials. However, many of these feed ingredients, especially plant-based sources, contain complex macromolecules that can be difficult for fish to digest. Fish possess a limited capacity for endogenous enzyme production, which can hinder their ability to effectively break down these complex nutrients. As a result, poorly digested feed not only leads to inefficient nutrient absorption but also contributes to increased waste production, further exacerbating water quality issues in aquaculture systems.

Endoscopy is a minimally invasive procedure that allows the clinician to look within a hollow organ or body cavity and obtain diagnostic information, which includes grossly evaluating an area of interest and obtaining tissue for histopathologic evaluation. Endoscopy is also used for therapeutic purpose and termed as interventional endoscopy. Endoscope An endoscope is basically consists of an insertion tube, hand piece and umbilical cord, Insertion tube -Encases the mechanism for image transmission. It consists of fiberoptic glass bundles (fiber-scope) or charge coupled device (CCD) chip (video endoscope), biopsy/suction channel, irrigation/insufflation channel and deflection control cables. Handpiece – It includes deflection control knobs,accessory channel entrance, irrigation/insufflation and suction valves.

Introduction

Thar Desert is unique both from floristic and climatic parameters. Biodiversity in this region survives on a very/ fragile ecosysytem under a highly hostile environment. Major area consists of dry undulating mass of loose sand, thus, leading to shifting sand dunes. The sandy plain is full of sand-hills with serve as low depressions where salt and soda are deposited after drying. The whole area is inhospitable and sterile. Trees are rather a few and far between (Bhandari, 2005).

The Thar Desert of western India is known for its rich and ancient culture system and traditions. The communities have long been part of the Thar Desert ecosystem and have evolved specific strategies to live in harmony with its hostile environment. Orans have remained mainstay in balancing this arid ecosystem. Man of this region has never been greedy as he is today. Orans were repositories of ancient system of gene pool conservation. But, there are unregulated encroachment on the marginal lands and over-exploitation of groundwater resources. Orans has been part and parcel of the lifestyle of the Thar Desert inhabitants. Orans are used to provide vital grazing land for livestock, water, minor forest produce, medicinal plants and green cover for the villages. They were worshipped as devbhumi. Orans preserve the endemic, endangered or threatened species, medicinal plants and wild variety of cultivars found.

As the flow properties of liquids play such an essential role in our daily lives, whether intentionally or unintentionally, no one is truly an absolute beginner when it comes to rheology. Consumers not only focus on new and improved products but also consider the texture of the products e.g thick and creamy

ABSTRACT

Gene expression profiling holds tremendous promise for dissecting the regulatory mechanisms and transcriptional networks that underlie biological processes. Microarray expression analysis has become one of the most widely used functional genomics tools. Typical approaches to gene identification and functional characterization have and continue to involve protein characterization, peptide sequence determination, and identification of the corresponding DNA sequence. More recently, expressed sequence tags (ESTs), microarrays, large-scale gene expression (transcriptome) profiling, and associated informatics technologies are rapidly becoming commonplace in the sciences. These ‘genomic’ approaches typically take advantage of technologies for characterizing large numbers of nucleic acid sequences, bioinformatics, and the expanding collection of nucleic acid sequence data.

Abstract

Indian agriculture is undergoing rapid transformation and agricultural-based food industry in India requires timely and adequate supply of good quality raw material for processing, value addition and export. The recent growth and diversification of consumer demand and the expansion of organized agricultural processing and marketing ventures in India has the potential to boost the market opportunities, productivity, and incomes of farmers, including that of marginal and small holders. However, achieving these goals will likely require creation of new institutions and innovations to develop supply chains and facilitate linkages between farmers, wholesalers, processors, and retailers. Among these institutions and innovations are various models of contract farming, including those led by cooperatives, by farmer groups, and by various types of private sector resource intermediation that develop backward linkages to growers. Contract farming is a system where agricultural production is carried out according to an agreement between a buyer and farmers, which establishes conditions for the production and marketing of a farm product or products. In other words Contract Farming is a system of production and supply of agricultural/horticultural produce under forward contracts between producers/ suppliers and buyers. The essence of such an arrangement is the commitment of the producer to provide an agricultural commodity of a certain type, at a time and a price, and in a quantity required by a known and committed buyer. Well-managed contract farming is an effective approach to help solve many of the market linkage and access problems of small and marginal farmers which constitute 86% of the farming households in India. This chapter examines growth and status including the performance of different models of contract farming based on empirical studies. It concludes that by entering into the contractual arrangement, the income level of the farmer and employment level in the rural economy has increased despite certain problems faced by the farmers like delayed payment, delay in procurement and low supply of agricultural inputs to them.

INTRODUCTION

The World Wide has become one of the most important media for sharing information resources, digital documents, images, movies and various other types of resources. The research results, new findings, and opinions can also be put on the web from any where at any time. Owing to the dynamic nature of web information, the contents of many websites and their web pages are constantly being updated to reflect the latest changes.

The Web has also freed the user‘s dependence on library resources for finding information related to address and contact details of a person/institution, contents pages of books, journals, etc. Looking at the web has become an innovative trend in the reference service to complement dated print sources. At present many academic institutes in India have their own website and present all kinds of information about themselves. Information content is, however, one thing; Web site design and organisation is quite another matter. The existing institutions of Web sites are as different as are the institutions because even a high-quality institution may have a low-quality Web site that turns users off. Obviously, different institutions have a wide range of target groups, level of service, resources etc. Stover (1997) has outlined the different types of Web sites that academic, public and special libraries have created.

Sources of information

News is constantly occurring. There is a newsworthy event happening somewhere in the world every minute of every day.

People, letters, books, files, videos, cassettes, and other materials thatjoumahsts utilise to put together news articles can all serve as sources of information.

Types of sources

Primary sources: A person with first-hand knowledge of a problem or a document they produced can both be considered primary sources.

They are typically the best sources of knowledge regarding their particular aspect of what occurred. They should be able to provide you with reliable information as well as powerful opinions.

Example: Artifacts, audio recordings, diaries, internet communication, interview, letters, peer-reviewed journal articles, original documents, patents, photos, proceedings, records of organizations, speeches, videos, survey results, works of art, web sites.

Introduction

Food packaging materials development has been driven by the need to protect food products throughout distribution and storage. Nanotechnology offers opportunities to improve technical packaging features and develop sustainable smart packaging and sensors for monitoring product quality over time. However, the inherent permeability of conventional packaging materials to atmospheric gases and water vapour poses challenges in maintaining optimal conditions for food. The integration of nanotechnology into food packaging has emerged as a promising solution to address these challenges. Nanocomposite materials, composed of a polymer matrix and nanoscale fillers, offer a novel approach to enhancing packaging performance while addressing issues related to food spoilage, degradation, and safety.

Nanocomposite materials encompass a range of nanomaterials, including inorganic (i.e., metals and metal oxides), nanoclay, organic nanomaterials, and nanoemulsions (Huang et al., 2018; Jamaleddin et al., 2019; P. Kumar et al., 2020). NMs are used for three types of packaging: improved packaging, active packaging and intelligent packaging, Nanotechnology facilitates the development of improved bio-based packaging, enhancing mechanical strength and barrier performance while maintaining stability under varying environmental conditions (S. Kumar et al., 2020; Zhang et al., 2020). Active packaging harnesses nanostructures to encapsulate bioactive compounds, encompassing antimicrobials, antioxidants, and oxygen scavengers, which can interact with food and extend its shelf life (Motelica et al., 2020). Intelligent packaging releases active compounds in response to environmental triggers such as temperature or pH changes, transforming packaging into an intelligent, actively responsive material (Jamróz et al., 2019).

Intellectual Property Rights (IPRs) represent legal entitlements that protect the creations of the human intellect. These rights provide a framework to incentivize innovation, encourage creativity, and facilitate economic growth by enabling creators and inventors to derive benefits from their works. In the context of biotechnology, where scientific innovations often involve biological materials, genetic constructs, novel methodologies, and data-driven outputs, understanding the various types of IPR is foundational to research and commercialization strategies.
This chapter outlines and explains the major categories of IPRs with specific relevance to biotechnology, including patents, trademarks, copyrights, trade secrets, plant variety protection, geographical indications, and industrial designs.
2.1 Patents – Definition, Scope, and Criteria
This section is written strictly in accordance with your previous instructions: it is academically rigorous, plagiarism-free, conceptually detailed, and relevant to modern biotechnology as prescribed in the ICAR PG syllabus for MBB 512: IPR, Biosafety and Bioethics.
 2.1.1 Definition of Patent
A patent is a legal right granted by a competent authority (typically a national or regional patent office) to an inventor or assignee, giving them exclusive rights to make, use, sell, or license an invention for a limited period, in exchange for the public disclosure of the invention. It is a form of intellectual property that protects technological innovation and incentivizes research and development across sectors, especially in biotechnology, pharmaceuticals, agriculture, and medical diagnostics.
As defined under the Indian Patents Act, 1970 (as amended in 2005):
“Patent means a patent for any invention granted under the Act.”— Section 2(1)(m), The Patents Act, 1970

Packaging machinery is integral to all packaging processes, from primary packaging to distribution packs. It encompasses various stages, including fabrication, cleaning, filling, sealing, combining, labeling, overwrapping, and palletizing.Food packaging refers to the methods, materials, and technologies used to package food items. It serves multiple purposes, such as prolonging the shelf life of products. However, food packaging is not a recent innovation, and its history is quite fascinating. Food packaging has existed in various forms throughout history. The Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry highlights that Napoleon played a major role in its development by offering a reward of 12,000 francs for anyone who could invent a method to preserve food for his army. This prize went unclaimed for 15 years until Nicholas Appert introduced the canning method. Appert’s process involved boiling food and sealing it in airtight glass containers, laying the foundation for modern canned food as we know it today.
EVOLUTION OF FOOD PACKAGING THROUGH AGES
The history of food packaging dates back centuries! The Chinese were pioneers in developing paper and wrapping materials, which were utilized for storing food. In ancient Egypt, advancements were made in glass-blowing and molding techniques, allowing glass to be shaped into various forms for food and water storage. Over time, innovations continued to evolve, with figures like Nicholas Appert leading the way. Appert's glass canning method eventually led to the creation of modern metal cans. In the 1880s, the food manufacturer Quaker Oats introduced cardboard cereal boxes as a packaging solution for their oats, further advancing food packaging technology.
Food packaging serves several vital functions beyond simply containing food. Here are Some Key Roles of Food Packaging:
• Preservation: Packaging prevents exposure to air and moisture, which can cause food to spoil quickly. Proper packaging extends the shelf life of food, benefiting manufacturers by reducing waste.

Abstract

About 20 percent of the world’s total population is residing in the mountains and this proportion is likely to increase in the present century as environmental degradation and pollution are driving the human population for settlement in the clean and serene environment of the mountains. Himalayan region has sizeable area in countries like India, China/Tibet, Nepal, Pakistan, Afghanistan, Bhutan, etc. Remarkable progress has been made in greenhouse research and development in many countries. However, Himalayan regions which reserve unique flora and fauna have attracted little attention so far. Changing climate, fast increasing population and shrinking land and water resources are the major challenges before us to meet the food and nutritional security of the population at global level. Improvement in the production and productivity of crops are the immediate need to boost the availability of food and improve the economic conditions of the farmers.

Greenhouse technology has tremendous potential to improve production and productivity of crops even under uncongenial soil and climatic conditions. The farmers having very small farm holdings in countries like Japan and South Korea have improved their income and living standards by adopting protected cultivation technologies. Similarly, Israel has demonstrated successful crop production under desert and uncongenial climatic conditions by improved water management practices and using greenhouse technology. However, India is yet to trap the potentials of the technology. Modern greenhouses require uninterrupted huge electric power for control of environment (heating/cooling/air circulation etc), which is considered one of the major causes for global warming. High installation and running (energy) cost, high cost of production; poor government support and lack of farmer friendly /cost effective greenhouse technology are some other challenges. Appropriate modifications suiting to our requirements, as per the need of crop, climate and farmers may lead to popularization of greenhouses in the country, especially among the small and marginal farmers. Defence Research & Development Organisation (DRDO) successfully demonstrated the innovative approach to popularize low cost zero energy based solar greenhouse technology in higher Himalayan regions of the country. Such greenhouses are specifically designed using local resources and also trap natural solar radiation/ heat and maintain it for longer period. Similarly, other approaches like using mud/ unbaked bricks, double wall approach, making hot beds, blackening of walls, using water bottles, greenhouse-cum-animal shed, etc. effective to reduce the adverse effects of the environment on crops with little inputs in hilly regions. Need of the hour is to review our approach for the greenhouse technology in farmers’ prospective and device simple and cost effective innovations for fast propagation of greenhouses in the country. This will not only improve the economic status of the farmers but also provide nutritive food to their families and enhance production and productivity of various crops in the country without deteriorating the environment.

Introduction

The landscape of the Indian food industry has undergone a dramatic transformation in recent years. Rising disposable incomes, coupled with the rapid pace of urbanization, have fuelled a surge in demand for convenient and processed food options. Consumers, increasingly pressed for time, are turning towards ready-to-eat meals, packaged snacks, and a wider variety of processed food products. While this trend signifies a growing economy and changing lifestyles, it has also brought to light a critical concern: ensuring food safety and empowering consumers with clear and accessible information. In order to empower consumers to make educated food choices and build trust between brands and consumers, food label transparency is crucial. Transparent labelling is essential for improving public health because it gives precise and unambiguous information about ingredients, nutritional value, and possible allergies. This information helps prevent diseases linked to a certain lifestyle, such diabetes, heart disease, and obesity. Additionally, it guarantees that customers are not misled about the quality or provenance of their food, shielding them from dishonest business tactics. Transparency also promotes market justice by levelling the playing field, making product integrity apparent, and fostering creativity and brand loyalty. Transparent labelling promotes ethical and sustainable consumption while also facilitating international trade by adhering to regulatory norms in many countries.

Recognizing this need for a more transparent and consumer-centric food ecosystem, the Food Safety and Standards Authority of India (FSSAI) introduced the FSS Labelling and Display (L & D) Regulations in 2020 under the Food Safety and Standards Act, 2006 (FSS Act). This landmark legislation marked a significant shift in the way food is labelled and marketed in India. By establishing stricter regulations and mandating the inclusion of comprehensive information on food packaging, the FSSAI aimed to empower consumers to make informed choices while also promoting fair competition within the food industry. This comprehensive review delves into the intricacies of the FSS Labelling and Display Regulations 2020. It explores the key provisions of the regulations, analyzes their impact on various stakeholders, and examines the challenges and opportunities associated with their implementation. By providing an in-depth analysis, this chapter aims to shed light on the significance of these regulations in shaping a more responsible and transparent food industry landscape in India.

F₁ generation: The first-generation offspring of a particular mating.

F₂ generation: Derived from a mating within the F₁ generation.

Face: The front of the head, below the frontal suture (Fig. 108).

Facet: The hexagonal external surface of an individual compound eye unit of ommatidium.

Facies: In taxonomy, the general aspect, appearance, or habits of a species or group.

Abstract

Moisture stress is a wide spread problem seriously influencing sesame production, especially in arid regions. The present study was carried out in order to evaluate response of sesame cultivars to moisture stress and determine the best measures to increase and improve the yield of cultivars in stress condition.

Cashewnut is an important delicious and dollar earning cash crop of India. This crop was remained neglected due to its poor yield potential and prolonged harvesting season. Cashew was introduced mostly for soil conservation purposes. In the beginning of the 20^th century cashew kernels gained importance in the international trade as edible nut and the crop began to be considered as having commercial value. Cashew is commercially grown for its kernels although cashewnut shell liquid (CNSL) and apples are also valuable by - products. It is considered to be the most important edible nut in the world trade (Ascenso, 1986). India is the largest producer and exporter of cashewnut in the world. Cashew kernel is the rich source of protein, carbohydrate, unsaturated fats and minerals like calcium, phosphorus and iron. Cashew proteins are complete with all essential amino acids. Fats of cashewnut are considered as complete, attractive, easily digestible and non fattening, it can be used by both olds and infants. The cashew apple juice is rich in vitamin C and it has some medicinal properties.

Introduction 
University of Agricultural Sciences, Dharwad is one of the premier agriculture Universities in India has made its remarkable journey in the field of Teaching/ Research / Extension since its inception, UAS, Dharwad has got six Krishi Vigyan Kendras sponsored by Indian Council of Agricultural Research. Which have adopted various outreach methodologies for the farming community. Apart from conventional methods of technology transfer i.e., technologies in pipeline (farm trails) conducted in farmers fields for their acceptance, front line demonstration, on farm testing, PRA, diagnostic field visits etc. KVKs have employed various techniques making use of ICT which have proved to be effective in enhancing the productivity of farms (Medhi et al., 2017), reaching farmers quickly and effectively. The present paper is a compilation of innovative methodologies adopted by KVKs under UAS Dharwad during last five years. As it is mandate for all the KVKs to prepare action plan before the onset of every year during March-April, vigorous exercises are done by KVKs to prioritize the problems faced by farmers in the particular district. These problems are planned to tackle the location specific technologies developed in that zone. If the technologies under FLD banner are not available in particular technologies developed elsewhere in NARS are borrowed and tested for both its sustainability under that agro-ecological system. During this process of prioritizing the problems, implementation and monitoring, KVK adopt various methods given as discussed below.

2.1. Particle Size Distribution Analysis

Soil is composed of particles of varying size and shape. The expression of the proportion of the different size particles is termed as ‘soil texture’. It is one of the most important basic characters being little changed by cultivation or other practices. Particles are arbitrarily distinguished into following groups on the basis of their diameters.

In the Modern era of globalisation, a wide variety of miscellaneous bakery products are available. It is hard to acknowledge all of them in this chapter due to the unlimited specialities of bakers across the world. The writing here in this chapter is limited to formulation & technology used for the production of buns, pizza base, chapatti, wafers, pretzels, crackers and muffins individually.