eChapters

The drug action can be adversely affected by the presence/concomitant administration of another drug/ agent, may be inhibiting its absorption, metabolism or excretion. Some of the drugs are incompatible with IV fluids, resulting in their inefficacy. The important drug interactions to be taken into consideration while administering a drug, are tabulated in this chapter.

IMF : Short for International Monetary Fund, referee and, when the need arises, rescuer of the world’s financial system. The IMF was set up in 1944 at bretton woods, along with the world bank, to supervise the newly established fixed exchange rate system. After this fell apart in 1971–73, the IMF became more involved with its member countries’ economic policies, doling out advice on fiscal policy and monetary policy as well as microeconomic changes such as privatisation, of which it became a forceful advocate. In the 1980s, it played a leading part in sorting out the problems of developing countries’ mounting debt. More recently, it has several times co-ordinated and helped to finance assistance to countries with a currency crisis.

Immunity, active : Resistance developed in response to stimulus by an antigen (infecting agent or vaccine) and usually characterized by the presence of antibody produced by the host.

Immunity, herd : The resistance of a group to invasion and spread of an infectious agent, based on the resistance to infection of a high proportion of individual members of the group. The resistance is a product of the number susceptible and the probability that those who are susceptible will come into contact with an infected person.

Immunity, passive : Immunity conferred by an antibody produced in another host and acquired naturally by an infant from its mother or artificially by administration of an antibody-containing preparation (antiserum or immune globulin).

Soil Structure Defined

Soil structure is defined as the arrangement of individual soil particles with respect to each other into a pattern. Structure describes the gross, over-all arrangement ofthe soil solids. In other words, soil structure is the ‘architecture’ of a soil.

Soils are composed of structural units, called “peds”. The peds consist of many individual particles, bound together by cementing agents like organic matter, clay and hydrous oxides of iron and aluminium. However, the strength of the bonds, the size and shape of the peds and the proportion of the soil particles involved in the peds differ considerably among soils.

4.1. Black gram, green gram, lablab and cowpea

4.1.1. Bean aphid: Aphis craccivora (Aphididae: Hemiptera)

1. Host range: Groundnut, redgram, peas, beans, safflower, lablab, niger

Iberis amara L. (Brassicaceae): Eng.- Candy Tuft [NI]. Half hardy annual ornamental herb. Leaves light green, lanceolate. Flowers borne in corymbs of light fragrant flowers, ranging in colour from white through pink to red purple.

Introduction

Botanical name of cocoa is Theobroma cacao and family is Malvaceae. The cocoa bean, also cacao bean or simply cocoa or cacao, is the dried and fully fermented fatty seed of Theobroma cacao, from which cocoa solids and cocoa butter are extracted. Cocoa flavour is the most distinct feature of chocolate, thus cocoa beans are the basis of chocolate. Dried cocoa beans are usually processed into cocoa butter, which contains fat between 56% and 58%, made up of a mixture of triglycerides. Cocoa butter with this composition is good for making chocolate and has favourable hardness and a melting point of body temperature. Theobroma cacao originated from the Jungle of the Amazon in Brazil. Theobroma cacao consists of two subspecies: the Cacao, a subspecies known as the Criollo, which can be found in Central and South America, and spharocarpum, which is also called theForastero. The Criollo has superior and fine flavour. The pods are red and the beans have no color. Forastero has a green pod

1. In developed countries, the major objective of price policy is to____________

a) Prevent drastic fall in agricultural income

b) Increase the agricultural production

c) Both a & b

d) None of the above

2. In developing economies it is to _____

a) Prevent drastic fall in agricultural income

b) Increase the agricultural production

c) Both a & b

d) None of the above

3. The important objectives of the new agricultural policy are _____

a) Augment facilities for All-Round Development

b) Infrastructural Development

c) Reviving and strengthening Co-operatives and local communities

d) All the above

Introduction

Trichoderma spp. are free living, filamentous fungi that multiply rapidly on many substrates such as soil, decaying wood materials and as root colonizers. Trichoderma spp. have a high potential for reproduction and sporulation, as well as competitive ability and saprophytic survival. The escalating need for eco-friendly and sustainable agriculture has driven extensive research on biological control agents like Trichoderma. These beneficial fungi exhibit potent antagonistic activity against plant pathogens, offering a promising alternative to conventional chemical pesticides.

Key Points

• Drug poisonings can be acute or chronic and result in the development of clinical signs and symptoms that may lead to animal disability or death, as well as extreme physiological and/or psychological changes.

• Drugs are substances that are used to prevent, treat, diagnose, and relive disease conditions by changing the physiology and/or psychology of the individual.

• Certain veterinary drugs have a specific antidote to counteract poisoning cases, while other veterinary drugs do not, and supportive therapy is required to counter these poisonings.

• Over-the-counter (OTC) medications, which are defined as human drugs or nutritional supplements that are available without a prescription, have potential risks for use in animals due to their increased toxicity.

Introduction

Many veterinary medications, which are used to treat both animals and birds, have the potential to poison the species to whom they are provided. These medications' toxic effects are mostly caused by giving them to the wrong species, at the wrong doses, or in the wrong combinations of medications. Certain medication poisonings can be identified due to patient individuality and eccentricities. As a result, there are many cases of these poisonings. This chapter discusses the poisoning caused by frequently and carelessly used veterinary medications, such as the toxicity of antibiotics and antibacterials, the toxicity of antiparasitic drugs, the toxicology of analgesics, the toxicity of cough treatments, the toxicity of the digestive system, the toxicity of vitamins, and the toxicity of topical preparations.

Introduction
Human activity on the environment is the root cause of many environmental issues. The standard of the environment we live in must be each of our own concerns. The quality of our surroundings can be enhanced or degraded by our individual actions. As a result, people must feel obligated to preserve the environment by leading ethical and ecologically conscious lives.
Conservation
best possible use of human, environmental, and cultural resources in national development programs. The Latin terms “servare” (keep watch) and “con” (together) denote this.
Conservation Goals
1. Preservation of the environment’s quality.
2. Assure a steady supply of valuable material. Role of Individuals in Conserving Resources
The Diversity of Life
1. Gain an appreciation for all living things.
2. Make regular efforts to plant trees.
3. Cut back on the amount of wood and paper goods you use, recycle paper goods, and purchase recycled goods.

Introduction

Women constitute half of the Indian population. Around 80 % of the total female population lives in rural and out of 31 million women work force of the country, 20 million are living in rural areas. The role played by women in agriculture is more enormous and fully recognized. Women accounted for more than 76 per cent of the marginal workers and about 16 per cent of them are main workers. Among main workers as well as marginal workers more women belong to the category of agricultural labourers. The role of women and their involvement is more in production, processing and storage of grains. In general, 60-70 per cent of labour input is provided by womenfolk which increases upto 80 per cent in rice. Women formed part of a highly valuable human resources which with appropriate training and education, can bring about phenomenal changes in the desirable direction. By keeping this view, the main focus of this paper was, to find out the role played by the farm women in farming, allied and off-farm activities.

Biotechnology plays a very important role in agriculture as a result of its ability to modify microorganisms, plants, animals, and agricultural processes. The umbrella of microbial technology in agriculture covers numerous scientific activities, ranging from production of biofertilizers to that of microbial pesticides; from biological nitrogen fixation to lignocellulose degradation; from production of biomass and biofuels to transgenic plants. Terrestrial ecosystem contains an important dynamic living matrix termed soil, which is critical for agricultural production and food security. Soil forms the medium for growth and maintenance of a variety of plant species. Soil is considered a store house of microbial activity, though the space occupied by living microorganisms is estimated to be less than 5% of total space.

Proteins

Proteins are of central importance in the structure and function of all living organisms. Some proteins serve as structural components while others function in communication, defense, and cell regulation. Some proteins serve as enzymes that act as biological catalysts which control the pace and nature of essentially all biochemical events. Although DNA serves as the genetic blueprint of a cell, none of the life processes would be possible without the proteins.

Electrophoresis of Proteins

Proteins can be separated and purified. Methods for separating proteins take advantage of properties such as charge, size, and solubility, which vary from one protein to the next. Because many proteins bind to other biomolecules, proteins can also be separated on the basis of their binding properties. The source of a protein is generally tissue or microbial cells. The cell must be broken open and the protein must be released into a solution called a crude extract. If necessary, differential centrifugation can be used to prepare subcellular fractions or to isolate organelles. Once the extract or organelle preparation is ready, a variety of methods are available for separation of proteins. Ion-exchange chromatography can be used to separate proteins with different charges (similar to the way amino acids are separated). Other chromatographic methods take advantage of differences in size, binding affinity, and solubility. Nonchromatographic methods include the selective precipitation of proteins with salt, acid, or high temperatures. In addition to chromatography, another important set of methods is available for the separation of proteins, based on the migration of charged proteins in an electric field, a process called (gel) electrophoresis. Gel electrophoresis is especially useful as an analytical method. Its advantage is that proteins can be visualized as well as separated, permitting a researcher to estimate quickly the number of proteins in a mixture or the degree of purity of a particular protein preparation. Also, gel electrophoresis allows determination of crucial properties of a protein such as its isoelectric point and approximate molecular weight.

Soil Consistence Defined

Soil consistence is the strength with which soil materials are held together or the resistance of soils to deformation and rupture. Soil consistence is measured for wet, moist and dry soil samples. For wet soils, it is expressed in terms of both stickiness and plasticity. Stickiness is the ability of soil materials to adhere to other objects. Plasticity is the ability of the soil materials to change shape continuously under a constant pressure and to retain the impressed shape when the pressure is removed. Soil consistence may be estimated in the field using simple tests or may be measured more accurately in the laboratory.

Gravimetric analysis

Techniques – analyte is determined by quantitative isolation of substance by precipitation and weighing the precipitate

Diseases are caused by different kinds of microorganisms which may primarily attack specific plant organs initially. They may be either confined to the organs in which infection is successfully initiated and may spread to other organs to cause secondary infection. The plant organs initially affected may not show characteristic symptoms in certain cases as in root rot and wilt diseases. The root infection is recognized much later, when yellowing (chlorosis) of the leaves is observed. It may become very difficult to save the infected plants at this stage, since the pathogen is well established in the deeper tissues of the infected plants. However, the spread of the disease to the adjacent plants may be prevented by protective treatments. Integration of various principles of management of crop diseases has to be followed for successful crop cultivation. The combination of practices that can be applied varies with different types of diseases and the crops affected. Hence, the integrated management of crop diseases is discussed for different groups of diseases affecting primarily different plant organs/ tissues. Fungal and bacterial pathogens remaining in the soil or plant debris left over after harvest of previous crops infect the root system initially and crown or the basal portions of the stem may also be affected later.

Introduction

In developing countries, ruminants thrive mainly on poor quality feeds and pastures, whose nutritive value is poor. They are having a low content of nitrogen, energy, minerals and vitamins and high content of lignin and silica, which limit their efficient utilization by ruminants. Therefore, these poor quality feeds and fodder needs to be upgraded in terms of their nutritive value using various treatments like physical, chemical, physico chemical and biological methods to improve intake and utilization of nutrients from poor quality roughages. However, supplementation of critical nutrients like energy, protein, minerals, vitamins also improved the productivity and health of the ruminants (Dass et al., 2011). Availability of oil cakes as protein supplement in developing countries is very poor and at a very high price, This has led to use of non-protein nitrogen source as urea, to compensate for the nitrogen deficiency of fibrous feeds (Dutta et al., 2009). Thus, enhancing intake, digestibility and availability of nutrients from poor quality roughages are only possible through optimization of rumen fermentation. The use of solid multi-nutrient block supplementation /urea-molasses blocks/ multi nutrients blocks/ pashu chocolates to provide optimum levels of various nutrients primarily for better growth of rumen micro organisms. They need rich sources of fermentable nitrogen, minerals and vitamins, which are lacking in the fibrous feeds like cereal straws (Sahoo et al, 2009). This offer several advantages such as easy transport, storage and handling, and reduced risks of poisoning as compared with other approaches, such as giving a small amount of urea in drinking water, sprinkling of urea solution on fibrous feeds before feeding, or urea-ammonization of crop residues (Dutta et al ., 2009).

Dried Cocoa Bean have chemical composition as: The shell (testa) represents 10-14% dry weight of the cocoa bean, while the kernel or cotyledon is made up of most of the remaining 86-90%. The cotyledon confers characteristic flavours and aromas of chocolate and is composed of two types of parenchyma storage cells.

Before processing, the quality ofbeans is evaluated for the following indicators:

1. Degree of fermentation
2. Moisture content (maximum 6%)
3. Number of defects
4. Number of broken beans
5. Bean count (number per 100 g)

Definition

• Aetiology is defined as study of causation of disease.

Classification of Causes

• There are several agents or factors that can produce diseases in animals and can originate from within the body (intrinsic) or outside the body. (extrinsic).

Causes are classified into two categories

1. Predisposing causes (Intrinsic/Endogenous factors)

2. Definitive causes (Extrinsic/Exogenous factors)

Predisposing Causes

• Make the animal susceptible to definitive causes.

1) Leaf Spot
Diagnostic Symptoms
• Initially oblong brown spots having about 4-5 cm in length and 2-3 cm in width with grey centres surrounded with yellow hallo are found on the leaves.
• Large number of spots may be found on a single leaf and as the disease advances, spots enlarge and cover a major portion of leaf blade.
• Severly affected plants dry and wilt.
• Black dots acervuli formed in concentric rings on spot.The grey centres become thin and get teared(Fig-1).
Etiology
Scientific Classification
Kingdom : Fungi
Division : Eumycota
Sub- division : Deuteromycotina