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First discovered by Scottish surgeon sir Alexander ogston (1880) in infected tissues. He named it as staphylococcus” (Greek staphyle, bunch of grapes;
KOKKAS, berry).
Systematics
Domain : Bacteria
Phylum : Firmicutes
Class : Bacilli
Order : Bacillales
Family : Staphylococcaceae
Genus : Staphylococcus
Species : Staph. aureus
Staph. Intermedius
Staph. hyicus
Habitat and Ecology
Staphylococcus occurs worldwide in mammals although the spread of staphylococcal strains between different animal species is limited. They colonise the nasal cavity, skin and mucous membranes and can be transient in the intestinal tract. It is an opportunist type organism.

Introduction
A natural disaster refers to a significant and harmful occurrence caused by the Earth’s natural processes. Examples of natural disasters include floods, storms, tornadoes, volcanic eruptions, earthquakes, tsunamis, and other geologic phenomena. A natural calamity can result in fatalities or destruction of property, and usually leads to economic harm, the extent of which is determined by the afflicted population’sability to bounce back and the availability of infrastructure.
Categories of Natural Disasters/ Catastrophes
Floods
A flood is the result of water overflowing and covering land. According to the EU Floods Directive, a flood is defined as the temporary  inundation of territory that istypically not submerged in water. Flooding can occur when the amount of water in ariver or lake exceeds its  capacity, causing the water to overflow and breach its normal borders. The size of a lake or other body of water may alter due to seasonal variations in precipitation and snow melt. However, it is not considered a substantial flood unlessthe water submerges land that is utilized by humans, such as villages, cities, populated areas, highways, and farms.

INTRODUCTION

Promoting agroforestry is a major opportunity to deal with problems related to land-use and CO2-induced global warming (Albrecht and Kandji 2003). As per recent projections, the area of the world under agroforestry will increase substantially in the near future. Undoubtedly, this will have a great impact on the flux and long-term storage of carbon in the terrestrial biosphere (Dixon 1995). Several studies have shown that inclusion of trees in the agricultural landscapes often improves the productivity of systems while providing opportunities to create carbon sinks (Winjum et al. 1992; Dixon et al. 1993; Krankina and Dixon 1994; Dixon 1995). The amount of carbon sequestered largely depends on the structure and function of agroforestry systems - which to a great extent, are determined by environmental and socio-economic factors. Other factors influencing carbon storage in agroforestry systems include tree species and management system. The significance of agroforestry with regards to carbon sequestration and other CO2 mitigating effects is being widely recognized. There are sound reasons to believe that agroforestry can contribute significantly to carbon sequestration. It is important that research attention is focused on this aspect of agroforestry systems (Nair and Nair 2002).

Introduction

Agriculture is the base of Indian economy on which the fortunes of over 70 million families directly or indirectly rest. The women in these families are also partners in crop and food production as managers, decision makers and skilled farm workers. The socio economic advancement of a country can be best judged by the status and position, which is bestowed on its women. Women as a class, play a vital role in the process of economic development. According to census 2001, women constitute 48.26 per cent of the total population of India and 25.67 per cent of the female population are designated. Amongst the female workers, 32.50 per cent are identified as cultivators and 39.43 per cent as agricultural labourers.

Seed Germination Test

Germination is the process of emergence and development of seed embryo into a plant under favourable environmental conditions of water, soil, sunlight and temperature. The best example of germination is the sprouting of a seedling from a seed of an angiosperm plant. It reflects the ability of seed to produce a normal plant under favourable environmental conditions. The germination rate of a particular seed lot is a key indicator of its performance in the field.

Livestock feeds have a variety of feed stuffs for feeding. Composition and characteristics differ even amongcloselyrelated feeds.Also, cost and availability of such feeds at a particular place, makes the farmer to choose for practical feeding. Therefore, it becomes imperative to learn about such classes. Feeds may generally be classified according to the amount of a specific nutrient they provide intheration. Theymayconvenientlybe divided intotwo general classes– roughages and concentrates. Roughages are bulky feeds containing more than 18 per cent crude fibre, but less than 60 per cent total digestible nutrients. Contrary to this, concentrates have less than 18 per cent fibre, but more than 60 per cent total digestible nutrients. Roughages may be further sub-divided intosucculent and drytypes.Whereas, concentratesare sub-dividedintoEnergy or basal feeds havingless than 20 percent crude protein and Protein supplements havingmorethan 20percent crude protein. Followingfeeds indicate theoutlines of classification [Flow chart 1] of the conventional feeds into broad categories with examples.

Lawn is the basic feature of garden without which a garden is seldom complete. All other features are selected and placed considering lawn as a first primary feature. A well spread out land planted with uniform lush green grass of particular type serves as a heart of all gardens. Lawn with systematic planting of shrubs and seasonal flower beds along with well placed specimen plants is the most striking feature of the garden.

Developing a good lawn is not an easy task. One has to consider many things like selection of site, preparation of the land and type of grass to be planted besides its maintenance. Following points need to be considered while developing a lawn.

Site and Soil

Selection of site is an important primary factor. Under full or partial shade, a good lawn can not be developed. The part of proposed garden which receives full sunlight at least four hours a day preferably in the morning should be selected as a site for lawn. Planting of tall trees is to be avoided at the south and south-eastern side of the lawn which obstructs sunlight and provides shade.

Chi-square test is a non-parametric test as the null hypothesis does not contain any assumption regarding the population parameter. Chi-square is also written as c₂. In this chapter two uses of chi-square test will be dealt with. They are the following :

Precipitation

An ionic phenomena wherein the product of the ionic concentrations of a substance in a solution exceeds the solubility product

Precipitate is often ignited before weighing to convert it into substance of definite chemical composition and chemical stability

Compound precipitated –– precipitated form

Example: Magnesium ammonium phosphate

6.1. Cotton

6.1.1. Leafhopper: Amrasca devastans (Cicadellidae: Hemiptera)

Integrated plant nutrition system conceptualized by food and agriculture organization is the maintenance or adjustment of soil fertility and of plant nutrient supply to an optimum level for sustaining the desired productivity through optimization of benefits from all possible sources of plant nutrients viz. organic manures, fertilizers, crop residues, compost or nitrogen fixing crops etc. in an integrated manner.

Plants have to transport water and nutrients absorbed by the roots from the soil and photosynthetic products from the leaves to other plant parts and storage tissues through the stem tissues. Infection by fungal and bacterial pathogens interferes with the movement of the essential materials leading to the derangement of several physiological functions to varying degrees and even collapse of the aerial plant parts.

16.1 Fungal Pathogens causing Diseases Affecting Stems of Plants

Fungal pathogens cause blight, stem rot, rust, anthracnose, die-back and canker symptoms on the stem tissues of several crops. These pathogens may be soilborne or airborne generally, while some of them may spread through water also.

Introduction

The key factor of sustainability in the animal sector depends upon genetic improvement in domestic livestock. There are many reproductive and molecular biotechnologies used for the genetic improvement of domestic livestock and they are synergistically coupled with the breeding program in distinct breeding targets. With the help of gene editing techniques (e.g. CRISPR etc.). To improve the specific traits of interest scientists can add, delete or replace the nucleotides (e.g. milk production, meat production, disease resistance, etc.) in less than one generation. Gene editing with the conventional breeding program in livestock is an important factor for genetic improvement for increasing the rate of genetic gain. In the present topic, here, we delved into the most important reproductive and molecular technologies used in livestock genetic improvement, as well as the most effective ways for incorporating gene editing into existing genetic improvement programmes and targeting specific traits for enhancement. The improvement in genetic level is a most powerful part of sustainable animal development because it is permanent and the effects are long-lasting and cumulative. Genetic advancements produced in one generation are passed on to the following, unlike dietary and animal health treatments, which are a continuous process. The many livestock operations that involve chemical and mechanical methods such as dehorning requires time, worker, money, animal safety, etc., but their genetic alternation of the concerned gene for the polled or hornless condition can exclude the requirement of physical dehorning. (Gottardo et al. 2011; Tompson et al. 2017).

Introduction

Avian mycoplasmosis is caused by several pathogenic mycoplasma of which mycoplasmosis due to Mycoplasma gallisepticum (Mg), Mycoplasma synoviae (MS) and Mycoplasma meleagridis are important. The mycoplasma are group of bacteria that lack cell wall due to which the shape of bacteria is pleomorphic. Due to lack of cell wal, mycoplasma are resistant to those drug which act on cell wall and includes Penicillin and its derivatives. Mycoplasma primarily affects respiratory system and joints in birds and respiratory and urogenital system in humans. The avian mycoplasma are mainly transmitted by vertical route (egg transmission), but can also transmitted by horizontal route. Mycoplasma gallisepticum (Mg) causes chronic respiratory disease (CRD) in chicken, turkeys and game birds. Mycoplasma synoviae (Ms) causes infectious synovitis in chicken and turkeys whereas Mycoplasma meleagridis cause disease in turkey. The Mg and Ms belongs to class of Mollicutes (Molecutis: soft tissue), order Mycoplasmatales and family Mycoplasmataceae. The CRD caused by Mg affects respiratory system and air sac in presence of other respiratory pathogen/ stress or immunosuppression. Clinically, CRD affected birds show respiratory rales, gasping, nasal discharge, and rhinitis with mortality due to complication with other respiratory viral pathogens or E. coli infection. The Ms has affinity for tendon and ligaments of joint causing severe lameness due to tenosynovitis with mild lesions in respiratory system and air sac. The Ms affected birds show lameness, breast blister and increased culling of male breeder birds. The Mg and Ms causes significant losses in poultry industry due to decreased egg production, condemnation and downgrading of carcass and decreased hatchability. Mycoplasma meleagridis in turkey associated with air sacculitis and drop in egg production.

Abstract

A study on colloids in groundwater and its relationship with the geochemical parameters is reasonably essential because of its facilitating nature to transport radionuclides in groundwater. Colloid sampling has been carried out in the coastal aquifers of southeast coast of India. Two different bore wells were selected based on the distance from the coast to collect groundwater samples. On the basis of the result achieved from this study, a reliable representation is emerging. The values of pH and EC are governed by the different size fraction of colloids. In this study, the relation between different size fractions of groundwater colloids and its pH, TDS and EC were carried out. These parameters were analyzed in the lab and its influence with four fractions of colloid like 1.2, 0.8, 0.45 and 0.22 µm have been discovered by smooth scatter plot. The accumulation of particles weighting by normal weighing instrument. There is an higher accumulation of particles found in Kalpakkam than Anupuram in all the size fractions. For separation of particles high frequency pressure was used by ultrasonic cleaner had been carried out. This method is very simple and more reasonable than any other methods.

ABSTRACT

This paper attempts to portray prevailing scenario of IPR in the light of globalization with special emphasis on harmonization of IPR systems and laws of different countries. 

INTRODUCTION

The globalization of information, facilitated by the Internet, has significant implications for intellectual property regimes of national and international levels. Assessment of these implications and their probable outcomes is unavoidably value-driven. Globalization represents ever-increasing influence of developed nations and transnational entities over developing and less developed nations. The process has also brought in significant changes in understandings of sovergenity. An analysis of the implications of globalization of information on international and domestic intellectual property rights and legal regimes is a complex endeavor.

The genetic code uses 64 codons to represent the 20 standard amino acids and the translation termination signal. Each codon is recognised by a subset of a cell’s transfer ribonucleotide acid molecules (tRNAs) and with the exception of a few codons that have been reassigned in some lineages (Osawa and Jukes 1989; Osawa et al., 1990) the genetic code is remarkably conserved, although it is still in a state of evolution (Osawa et al.,1992). The genetic code uses 64 codons to represent the 20 standard amino acids and the translation termination signal. Each codon is recognised by a subset of a cell’s transfer ribonucleotide acid molecules (tRNAs) and with the exception of a few codons that have been reassigned in some lineages (Osawa and Jukes 1989; Osawa et al., 1990) the genetic code is remarkably conserved, although it is still in a state of evolution (Osawa et al., 1992).

Introduction

In order to define climate it is important to distinguish it from weather. The weather that we experience on a day-to-day basis is a momentary atmospheric state characterized by temperature, precipitation, wind, and so on, and seems to vary in an irregular way, not following any particular pattern. Climate is a very general term that has a variety of closely related meanings. Usually, climate refers to the average weather conditions observed over a long period of time for a given area. In contrast to the instantaneous conditions described by weather, the timescale upon which climate statistics are calculated is typically thirty years. There can be variations in climate from year to year, or one decade to another, one century to another, or any longer time scale. The climate of a region depends on many factors including the amount of sunlight it receives, its height above sea level, the shape of the land, distance from the equator and how close it is to oceans. Generally speaking, the climate remains stable over long periods of time if the various elements within the system remain stable. However, if one or more of the components of the system is altered, the stability of the whole system is compromised and can lead to uncharacteristic behaviour and give rise to weather, which is outside the usual range of expectations. This situation can be described as climate change.

ABSTRACT

Brinjal is an important solanaceous vegetable, which holds coveted position among the different vegetables. Developing hybrids with high yield and resistance to borer would be highly beneficial. The biochemical parameters are used to study the mechanism of resistance to pests and diseases. With this aim, the biochemical constituents were estimated in five intervarietal hybrids and their parents with susceptible variety. The study on biochemical basis of resistance to shoot and fruit borer showed that among the parents of intervarietal crosses, EP 65 had the highest level of peroxidase, polyphenol oxidase and total phenol content in both shoot and fruit and it also recorded high content of solasodine next to APAU Bagmathi. Among the hybrids, the cross EP 65 x Pusa Uttam had the highest level of peroxidase and polyphenol oxidase activity in both shoot and fruit and high level of total phenols and solasodine content next to EP 104 x APAU Bagmathi . The susceptible check (CO 2) registered the lowest value for all the biochemical constituents .The study revealed that the genotypes with high or moderate level of these biochemical constituents suffered less for shoot and fruit borer infestation.

The native gel electrophoretic study showed that for peroxidase enzyme, the intervarietal hybrids EP 65 x Pusa Uttam, EP 12 x MDU 1 and EP 104 x APAU Bagmathi and the susceptible variety CO 2 did not show difference in the induction of isoform (PO-1) and all were single and thick. For polyphenol oxidase (PPO), the intervarietal hybrids and the variety CO 2 showed single and strong band induction

The evaluation of genotypes based on biochemical constituents and isozyme studies revealed the superiority of the parents EP 65, APAU Bagmathi and MDU 1and the hybrids EP 65 x Pusa Uttam, EP 12 x MDU 1 and EP 104 x APAU Bagmathi. The identified hybrids with high yield and resistance to shoot and fruit borer could be exploited for commercial cultivation.

There are many different methods of extracting DNA bands from an agarose gel. Which one you choose will probably depend on the consumables you have available in your lab. Another important consideration is the yield/ purity of the DNA after extraction. Agarose contains various impurities which may inhibit downstream reactions if not efficiently removed from the DNA. We used to give the generic term ‘hoonose’ to the unspecified carbohydrates that co-purified along with the DNA and inhibited enzyme reactions. Modern spin-column kits are very good at removing impurities, old-fashioned ‘kitchen sink’ methods are less good.

Cutting Out the DNA Band

Most of the methods require you to cut out the band. You must visualise the band, in an ethidium bromide stained gel, in a dark-room on a UV light- box (a trans-illuminator). UV is dangerous, wear gloves, long-sleeves and face protection. Never look at UV with unprotected eyes. If possible, set the trans-illuminator to long-wavelegth UV (or low-power) and minimise the amount of time the DNA is exposed. This is because the UV mutagenises the DNA at a measurable rate. Use a scalpel blade to cut around the band of interest. Switch off the transilluminator, switch on the white light and carefully remove the band from the gel and place it on the glass. It is good to trim off as much empty agarose as possible so go back to UV illumination briefly to do this. Place the excised band in a 1.5mL microfuge tube.