eChapters

7.1. Early shoot borer: Chiloinfuscatellus snellen

1. Damage symptoms

The development of a recipe for chocolate should be based on three criteria:

(i) The intended market or use;

(ii) The limitation being placed on material and production costs;

(iii) The desired quality.

The amount of fat present in the chocolate will affect the flow properties, and fat content must therefore be varied according to the intended use.

Some point to remember while manufacturing chocolate:

1. To maintain proper viscosity if fat content is increased then sugar content should also be increased.
2. Milk chocolate requires lower fat content than dark chocolate.
3. Addition of emulsifier like commercial lecithin can save upto 5% of added cocoa butter.

Fruit crops are mostly composite plants consisting of scion and rootstock, except banana, papaya, and strawberry. Rootstock exhibits a great influence on the performance of a scion in terms of production efficiency, yields, quality, adoptability, and resistance against biotic and abiotic stresses. The primary function of a rootstock is to provide anchorage or support to the scion by growing deep into the soil and also regulating the uptake of moisture and nutrients. The rootstock cannot be changed during the life-time of a plant, so it makes it inevitable to pay more focused attention to it because its functions are long-term and complex.

ABSTRACT

This paper is an attempt to analyze the plausible impacts on the economy and social issues of developing countries with reference to enforcement of IPR.

Introduction

From commodity based nature, business has changed during the past hundred years in a way that ideas and knowledge have taken higher value than commodities. Today, many companies find their most valuable assets being intangible and they are therefore dependent on functioning IPR systems. But does the rigid protection of IPR serve all the people in our globalized world? The purpose of this paper is to discuss the impact of the introduction of IPR protection on developing and under developed countries in the light of TRIPS Agreement.

Abstract

This paper portray the generation of spectral signature library for semi arid area crops using hyperspectral data and the scope of the application of the generated digital library for the classification of the satellite imagery of similar regions.

Hypersprctral data have narrow bands which help to provide additional information related to observed features. In case of this agriculture study crop related information are gathered using hyperspectral sensors The variation in the observations are due to physic-chemical characteristics such as biochemical composition, physical structure, water content and plant ecophysical status. Using the hand held spectroradiometer the reflectance is captured for the bajra, moong, moth crops from the Rajasthan, India’s semi arid region. The observations have been taken for different dates considering the phenology of the crops. Hyperion data from EO-1 satellite have been used to implement the classification operation based on the spectral signature library of bajra. It is observed that the image with the crops can be classified according to the phenology difference.

Chocolate is almost unique as a food in that it is solid at normal room temperatures yet melts easily within the mouth. This is because the main fat in it, which is called cocoa butter, is essentially solid at temperatures below 25^oC when it holds all the solid sugar and cocoa particles together. This fat is, however, almost entirely liquid at body temperature, enabling the particles to flow past one another, so the chocolate becomes a smooth liquid when it is heated in the mouth. Chocolate also has a sweet taste that is attractive to most people.

The first known cocoa plantations were established by the Maya in the lowlands of south Yucatan about 600 AD. Cocoa trees were being grown by the Aztecs of Mexico and the Incas of Peru when the Europeans discovered central America. The beans were highly prized and used as money as well as to produce a drink known as chocolatl. The beans were roasted in earthenware pots and crushed between stones, sometimes using decorated heated tables and mill stones, similar to those illustrated in Figure 1.1.

1. Market information includes

a) Market intelligence

b) Market news

c) Both a and b

d) Marketing

2. Historical nature of market information is

a) Market intelligence

b) Market news

c) Market information

d) Marketing

3. Current information about markets is

a) Market intelligence

b) Market news

c) Market information

d) Marketing

A nursery is a place, where seedling, saplings, trees, shrubs and other plant materials are raised and sold out for planting in gardens and orchards. The prerequisites of a successful and remunerative fruit production are the availability of true-type, healthy and good quality planting materials. Nursery is, therefore, a place where one can produce true to type plants by gaining technical skill, maintaining plants property and by careful planning. Like orchard establishment, establishment of a nursery is also at permanent venture and any mistake made initially can’t be rectified easily in the later stages. Therefore, for establishing a nursery, due care in selection of site, plants to be raised and transportation facilitation etc. must be given.

Key Points

• It might be necessary to administer oxygen or perform artificial respiration. Giving tranquilizers is not a good idea.

• Precaution: It's crucial to always follow the label's instructions on how to use pesticides since they provide information on how to do so. Warnings against using on unapproved species or in testing conditions must also be included on labels. A maximum of care should be made to prevent drift or drainage to neighboring fields, pastures, ponds, streams, or other properties outside the treatment area. In no case should amounts larger than those specifically recommended be utilized.

Introduction

It has been determined that a number of plant species are poisonous to animals. These plants not only posed a health risk to humans and animals, but they also significantly reduced cattle productivity. Many plants contain chemicals that can be dangerous or even lethal to animals. The degree of toxicity varies based on the animal species, the quantity of plant material ingested, and the particular poisonous compounds in question. In general, there are two categories of dangerous plants: those that are known to be toxic and contain toxic compounds, and those that are normally non-toxic but can turn hazardous in certain circumstances. Here are some typical plant toxicities, along with information on managing toxicity and clinical signs.

Introduction

Wool which obtained primarily from sheep is an essential textile fiber that is used across the world. Whether for clothing, canvas work, carpets, or even upholstery, wool is a vital resource supporting many industries and occupations. This natural fiber has many benefits, such as being biodegradable, easy to clean and even having a natural structure that traps air which is excellent for heat retention. The annual wool production is 2 million tones. China ranks first in terms of global wool production. With a production of more than 333,624 tonnes of wool in 2020, China accounts for approximately 19% of the global wool clip. Australia produces 16% of global wool and is by far the largest wool exporter in the world. There has been a constant increase in the demand of wool products worldwide. This has made scientists to try to improve livestock and livestock associated derivatives. The conventional system along with the recent biotechnological interventions will be helpful for enhancing wool quality and production.

Scheme

The needy livestock farmer visits the banks in the local area and enquire with the bank manager about the livestock projects and after having discussion with him, he visits the technical expert. A scheme can be prepared by a beneficiary after consulting local technical persons of State animal husbandry department, DRDA, SLPP, etc. livestock co-operative society/union/federation/commercial livestock farmers. If possible, the beneficiaries should also visit progressive livestock farmers and government/military/agricultural university livestock farm in the vicinity and discuss the profitability of livestock farming. A good practical training and experience in livestock farming will be highly desirable. The livestock co-operative societies established in the villages as a result of efforts by the Livestock Development Department of State Government and National Livestock Development Board would provide all supporting facilities particularly marketing of fluid milk. Nearness of livestock farm to such a society, veterinary aid centre, artificial insemination centre should be ensured. There is a good demand for milk, if the livestock farm is located near urban centre. The scheme should include information on land, livestock markets, availability of water, feeds, fodders, veterinary aid, breeding facilities, marketing aspects, training facilities, experience of the farmer and the type of assistance available from State Government, livestock society/union/federation.

7.1 Introduction
The three factors used to categorise silkworm races are: (1) origin, (2) voltinism and (3) moulting. In addition, they are categorised according to their shape and colour. For more than 2,000 years, people have tamed and raised the silkworm Bombyx mori. It is a monophagous insect that exclusively consumes the leaves of mulberries. As a result, mulberry silk is typically meant when the word “silk” is used.
7.2 Classification Based on the Place of Origin
(a) Indian Races: Native to South East Asia and India; these races are indigenous. They have a longer larval stage and can withstand high humidity and temperatures. The larvae and cocoon are modest in size. The cocoon is often spindle-shaped and coloured in shades of green, yellow, or golden yellow. With a lower shell percentage, the cocoon shell is thin and most of them are multivoltine.
(b) Japanese Races: Japan’s indigenous races comprise this group. The larvae are strong. The cocoon resembles a peanut. The majority of cocoons are white, while some are yellow in hue. There are more double cocoons in the ratio. The silk strand is thick and short and of poor quality and are bivoltine or univoltine.

There is a great need to reduce the input costs and at the same time improve the farm productivity in a sustainable manner. A model has been worked out based on a number of field demonstration studies in different parts of India, Africa and Far Eastern countries. A model in which input cost can be reduced by nearly 20 percent and at the same time the crop production can be enhanced upto 20 percent is possible and can be a boon to farmers in most parts of the world. This is the model, which can be easily adopted in an evolutionary way. As suggested by Jonathan Foley (BOX – 1), use of high-tech, precision farming systems, as well as approaches borrows from organic farming, we can boost farm productivity substantially.
Among 8 millennium goals, eradication of poverty and hunger and environmental sustainability are perhaps the most prominent and complementary. The Green Revolution changed India from (and many other countries) from being food deficit to food sufficient / surplus state. Time is now for a new and Sustainable Revolution.
If we look at the challenge that agriculture sector has to face during the next few decades, it is clearly to double the food production by 2025 and triple it by 2050 on less per capita land, with less water and under environmentally challenging conditions.
Let us look at the current scenario and some major developments.
• Indian farmers spend nearly Rs.2 Lakh crores (1 Lakh = 100000& 1 Cr
= 10 Million) on inputs like seeds, fertilizers, pesticides.
• Nearly Rs.50,000 crores goes as fertilizer (chemical) subsidy.
• Excessive use of chemical fertilizers in India hasreduced soil fertility and food production (Green Peace & Vishwa Bharti report – 2009). Fertilizer use efficiency is drastically declining. (It has already come down from 19 Kg food grains per kg fertilizer in mid 60s to 12 kg/kg in 2007).
• Our soils are hungrier for organic carbon. The carbon transfers and trans-formations at the soil or even the cell level can delineate the other nutrients such as N, P, S etc that become available to plants and microorganisms.

Abstract

Droughts are normal recurring climatic phenomena that vary in space, time, and intensity. The spatial and temporal variability and multiple impacts of droughts provide challenges for mapping and monitoring on regional scales. Large historical datasets are required in drought studies to understand the complex inter-relationship between the climatic and meteorological data. Extraction of valuable information from such large data archives demands an automated and efficient way. Data mining is answer to above problem as it has the potential to search for hidden pattern and identify the relationship between the datasets. For the current research, rainfall data from 1951-2006 was used to compute Standardized Precipitation Index (SPI) and NOAA-AVHRR NDVI images for the period 1981-2006 was used to calculate Vegetation Condition Index (VCI). SPI and VCI were used as input parameters in the Apriori Algorithm for generating the association rules. Interesting rules were developed identifying the relationship between user-specified target episodes and meteorological events. Therefore, spatial and temporal pattern of drought was achieved with 88% confidence.

Salmonellosis is one of the important zoonoses, acute or chronic in nature, affected by all species of animals, birds and humans and characterized by gastroenteritis.

Etiology: The genus Salmonella belongs to the family Enterobacteriaceae. Currently there are 2463 serotypes (serovars) of Salmonella. According to the current system used by the CDC the genus Salmonella contains two species each of which contains multiple serotypes. The two species are S. enterica, the type species and S. bongori. The S. enterica subsp. enterica is divided into 6 subspecies. S. enterica subsp. enterica I is divided into serotypes, for example serotypes enteriditis, typhimurium, typhi and choleraesuis. The majority of 2463 Salmonella serotypes belong to S. enterica subsp. I and associated mainly with warm blooded vertebrates and are responsible for most Salmonella infections in humans and domesticated animals. Other serovars are restricted in their host range causing severe systemic disease in only one host. For example, S. typhi is restricted to infection in humans, S. abortusovis to infection in sheep, S. dublin in cattle, S. abortusequi in horses and S. choleraesuis in pigs. The serotypes (serovars) that most commonly cause Salmonellosis in farm animal species are as follows:

Cattle: S. typhimurium, S. dublin, S. newport

Sheep and goat: S. abortusovis, S. typhimurium, S. dublin, S. anaturn

Pig: S. typhimurium, S. choleraesuis

Horses: S. typhimurium, S. abortusequi, S. anatum, S. newport, S. enteritidis, S. arizona, S. angona, S. heidelbers

The organisms are Gm- and rod shaped of 1-31μX0.5-0.8μ in size. They are motile with peritrichous flagella except one type S. gallinarum pullorum which are always non-motile. They do not form capsules or spores but may possess fimbriae. Salmonellae are aerobic and facultatively anaerobic growing readily on simple media over a range of pH 6-8 and temperature 15-41°C (optimum 37°C). Colonies are large, 2-3 mm in diameter, circular and smooth. On MacConkey and deoxycholate citrate media colonies are colorless due to absence of lactose fermentation. On Wilson and Blair bismuth sulphite medium, jet black colonies with a metallic sheen are formed due to production of H2S. S. paratyphi A and other species do not form H2S, produce green colonies. Selenite F and tetrathionate broth are commonly employed as enrichment media.

Food adulteration is an unethical and often criminal malpractice. It is very common in countries of the South-East Asia region. It frequently occurs where informal food production and marketing services are predominant and enforcement of food regulation is weak. The prohibited substances are either added or used to partly or wholly substitute healthy ingredients. This creates the impression of freshness in old food artificially. Adulteration in food is usually done for financial gain. The high target is spices due to the demand and also their high price. Sometimes it can happen due to lack of proper hygienic conditions of processing, storage, transportation and marketing. The consumer is either cheated financially or becomes a victim of illness or disease. In case, the consumers take a lot of precautions at the time of purchase of such products it would help them in avoiding the purchase of such adulterated food. The whole spices: Dirt, dust, other seeds; chili powder: brick powder, salt powder or talc, powder. In ghee/butter: vegetable ghee, animal fat, mashed potato, sweet potato, etc. ; ice cream and beverages:saccharin; honey: jaggery, sugar syrup. Food contaminants are not added to the foods. They are present in foods as a result of the production (crop farming, animal husbandry and aquaculture), manufacture, processing, preparation, treatment, packing, packaging, transport or holding of such food or as a result of environmental contamination. Usually it includes the presence of harmful chemicals or microorganisms in food, which if consumed can cause several debilitating illnesses. Many times, unknowingly, the contamination may occur during the production, processing, storage and marketing.

Fieldpea is animportantrabi pulse crop which is highly productive and is grown for food, feed as a vegetable. There are two types of peas grown in India viz., vegetable type in which grains arevery sweet when green and become wrinkled ondrying, and grain type where grains are generally white and round. Green seeds of the grain type are not so sweet as in thecase ofvegetable type. The dry grains areconsumed in various forms such as chat, chhola, dal, vegetable and flour. Green seeds are used as fresh, frozen or canned vegetables. The cultivation of grain type is confined to northern and central parts of the country.

It is high protein (20%) crop with all the essential aminoacids important for normal activity of living organisms. The fractional composition is also favourable the most easily assimilated water soluble protein from mature pea seeds varies from 36 to 87% and in green matter from 65 to 82%. Pea contains 4 mgpro-vitamin A, 300 mgvitamin C, 3 mgB₁, 1.5 mgB₂and 1.2 mgpantothenic acid per 1000 g fresh seed weight. Also, it contains 1.1% fat, 2.2% minerals, 4.5% fibre and 56.5% carbohydrate. It is rich in phosphorus. Green pea and the immature pods of pea are typified by a high level of active lipotropic antisclerotic substances-choline and inositol.Choline deficiency may lead to the development and growth of malignant tumors.

Restriction Enzymes

Restriction enzymes are enzymes isolated from bacteria that recognize specific sequences in DNA and then cut the DNA to produce fragments, called restriction fragments. Restriction enzymes play a very important role in the construction of recombinant DNA molecules, as is done in gene cloning experiments. Another application of restriction enzymes is to map the locations of restriction sites in DNA.

Restriction endonucleases, often called restriction enzymes, cut DNA within the molecule by hydrolyzing the phosphodiester bonds between the nucleotides. Restriction enzymes were discovered in bacteria and there are now more than 1200 known restriction enzyme types. These enzymes are named using a simple system. EcoRI, for example, was isolated from E. coli and was the first enzyme isolated from a particular strain, hence the designation of I. HaeIII was isolated from Haemophilus aegyptius. HindIII was isolated from Haemophilus influenzae, and was the third enzyme discovered in a particular strain.

Usually, restriction enzymes only cut the DNA at or near a very specific nucleotide sequence known as a recognition site. This “restrictive” nature of these enzymes allows molecular biologists to pin-point exactly where the DNA is to be cut. In many cases, the recognition site of a restriction enzyme consists of a palindromic sequence where the order of the bases is read the same on each side of the helix. The two sides of the helix are antiparallel and the recognition sequence reads from 5’ to 3’ on either side of the helix. For example the recognition site for EcoRI is as follows;

Water is the elixir of life. It is required for the evapo-transpiration of growing plants. Water acts as a solvent and, together with dissolved nutrients, makes up soil solution from which plant roots derive nutrients. Soil water content controls soil air and soil temperature.

16.1. Forces of Water Retention

The forces responsible for water retention in soils are adhesion and cohesion. Adhesion refers to the attraction of solid surfaces for water. Cohesion refers to the attraction of water molecules for each other.

The force with which the soil particles retain water is defined in terms of pF scale (Schofield, 1935). pF is defined as “the logarithm to the base 10 of the numerical value of the negative pressure of soil moisture expressed in centimetres of water.”

Colorimetry is the quantitative analysis of a coloured constituent. It is determined by measuring the relative amount of absorption of light passing through a solution of a constituent.

When a monochromatic light is passed through a homogeneous medium, a part of the incident light is absorbed and part of the light is reflected and part could be transmitted. This can be mathematically expressed as