eChapters

It is supposed that man was evolved on earth about 15 lakh years ago. This man started to move by standing erect on his feet and called Homo erectus L. Later the modern man was evolved called Homo sapiens L. (Sapiens means learning habit) due to his continuous learning habit. It is difficult to trace the exact period of beginning of agriculture. Archeological evidences indicated that, Agriculture started about 50,000 years ago.

Hunting was the primary source of food in olden days and was prevailed for long time. They obtained his food through domestication of some animals like dogs, horse, cow, buffalo etc. They live in the periphery of the forest and migrate from one place to another in search of food. It was not comfortable and they started enjoying by settling at one place near the river and started agricultural system.

Radiation Chemistry is a branch of nuclear chemistry that deals with the study of chemical effects of radiation on matter.

Radio activity is the process by which an atomic nucleus of an unstable atom loses energy by emitting ionizing radiations (a, b, g radiations). It may be of

Introduction

Persistent income from agriculture is most important for sustaining the farming sector. Conservation agriculture (CA) is a resource-saving agricultural production system that aims to achieve production intensification and high yields while enhancing the natural resource base through compliance with three interrelated principles, along with other good production practices of plant nutrition and pest management (Abrol and Sangar, 2006). Conservation agriculture is largely promoted as one of the few win–win technologies affordable to farmers, in the sense that potentially it improves farmers’ yields (in the long term) at the same time conserving the environment. CA is described by FAO (http://www.fao.org.ag/ca) as a concept for resource saving agricultural crop production which is based on enhancing the natural and biological processes above and below the ground. As per FAO definition CA is to a.) Achieve acceptable profits, b.) High and sustained production levels, and c.) Conserve the environment. It aims at reversing the process of degradation inherent to the conventional agricultural practices like intensive agriculture, burning/removal of crop residues. Shifting from tillage-based agriculture to no-tillage CA systems removes unsustainable elements in the current tillage based systems and replaces them with CA elements that make the production systems profitable and ecologically sustainable. Conservation agriculture offers an opportunity for arresting and reversing the downward spiral of resource degradation, decreasing cultivation costs and making agriculture more resource – use-efficient, competitive and sustainable.

The goats play a vital role in the economy of the poor and marginal farmers of rural India. Notwithstanding the fact that the goat population has shown a steady growth over the year’s very little effort has been taken for genetic improvement at farm level. As per 20th Livestock Census, 27.74% of the livestock population is Goats. Out of 148.88 million Indigenous Goats (Including Non-descript), 27.4% are pure breed, 9.1% are graded breeds and the remaining 63.5% are non-descript breeds. So, to increase the productivity per goat, we need to improve the breed quality scientifically. Artificial insemination (AI) using frozen semen is practiced to produce superior progeny and to accelerate the up gradation of stock. The conception rate with AI is lower but it has great potential to multiply superior quality of goat with faster rate. This technique also spread elite genetic material throughout a population with increased rate of genetic improvement. This technique is also important for the breed conservation process and has paved the way for other reproductive biotechnologies. The sufficient elite germplasm of male buck is not available throughout the country to cover breeding programmed by natural mating. AI is the best solution to improve the quality and productivity per goat.

1. Determination of qualitative nursery planting materials

1.1 Quality assessment of seedlings

Nursery is a place where young/infant seedlings are kept under intensive care until they are ready for planting. The production of quality seedlings begins with the collection of quality seed, nursery establishment, and after-germination maintenance. The quality of plant propagation structures may not be a qualitatively gradable criterion, but it can be indirectly assessed by their relationship to growth, productivity, and vigour. The Dickson Quality Index (DQI) is very useful for assessing the quality of a specific group of seedlings. This is done by selecting some seedlings at random from that group and computing Dickson Quality Index (DQI).

In the present investigation, nine cyanobacterial species viz. Anabaena variabilis, Anabaena fertilissima, Nostoc muscorum, Nostoc punctiforme, Nostoc linckia, Nostoc commune, Spirulina platensis, Westiellopsis prolifica and Hapalosiphon sp. were tested for their activity pattern against some selected bacterial species.
 
Each cyanobacterial species was initially subjected to determine the early stationary phase of their life-cycle, which is believed to be the most appropriate period for the production of secondary metabolites by an organism. The growth curve for each cyanobacterial species was prepared by culturing them in BG-11 growth medium. Optical densities (OD) recorded at 650 nm were plotted against number of incubation days for each cyanobacterium. After 23-25 days of incubation period, each culture was harvested to obtain the biomass and spent medium, which were then subjected to process of extraction by using various solvents viz., Hexane, ethyl acetate, dichloromethane and methanol. The extracts and spent medium thus obtained were then investigated for antibacterial activity against five pathogenic bacteria including Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Klebsiella pnumoniae and Salmonella typhi.

The male genital system consists of:

1. The pair gonads, the testes
2. Epididymis
3. Vas deference or ductus deference
4. Accessory glands (Seminal vesicles, prostate glands, & bulbo-urethral glands)

Introduction

Bees belonging to the Apis genus can be found in a wide range of climates worldwide. Among them, the Apis mellifera Linnaeus species is distributed across diverse environments such as sub-Saharan Africa, northern Europe, and Central Asia. This species exhibits remarkable adaptability, thriving in various habitats like the oases of the African desert, the Alps, the edges of the tundra, and the misty regions of the United Kingdom. Additionally, other honey bee species within the Apis genus are predominantly distributed in Asia, specifically in tropical Southeast Asia.Honeybees are good biological indicators.

1. Genomic selection and CRISPR technology
• The adoption of genomic selection (GS) and CRISPR-Cas9 technology in spice breeding is likely to accelerate. These technologies can significantly improve the precision of breeding programs, enabling the development of varieties with enhanced traits like disease resistance, yield, and quality.
2. Climate-resilient varieties
• With climate change impacting agriculture globally, there is a growing trend towards breeding spices that are resilient to extreme weather conditions. This includes the development of drought-resistant, heat-tolerant, and
flood-tolerant varieties.
3. Biofortification
• Breeding programs are increasingly focusing on biofortification, which involves increasing the nutritional value of spices. This could lead to spices that are richer in essential nutrients like vitamins, minerals, and antioxidants.
4. Digital phenotyping and AI
• The integration of digital phenotyping tools and artificial intelligence (AI) is expected to revolutionize spice breeding. These technologies can enhance the efficiency of breeding programs by providing real-time data analysis
and predictive modeling.
5. Sustainable breeding practices
• There is a rising emphasis on sustainability in agriculture. Breeding programs are likely to incorporate practices that reduce environmental impact, such as using less water, reducing pesticide usage, and developing
organic farming-compatible varieties.

Since many decades environmentalists have warned of perils of chemicalised sports grounds, golf courses and cricket fields. They warn that our health is inextricably linked to the widespread use of toxic chemicals and also complain about the non-availability of safe alternatives.
Eco-sustainable sports fields must use the methods
• That do not pollute
• That are environment-friendly and effective
• That economize on the use of water and energy
Organizations like ECOCERT have prepared guidelines for Eco-sustainable fields including guidelines to take care of soils and turf, use of water including recyclation and use of only eco-friendly and certified compost and organic fertilizers.
Typical Golf Courses are heavy users of pesticides and water. UNESCO World Water Development report found that an 18 hole golf course can use as much as 2.3 million liters of water every day. With the increasing awareness and concern about health and environment, the demand for eco-friendly sports fields are on the rise.
Phil Weaver – Chairman of the Professional Golfer Association (PGA) has stated that “we are keen to have a more environmental approach to the golf industry. I am not sure organic is totally achievable but it is a great aim”. A numerous environmental certification system have been set up for golf courses that lead the way in terms of chemical reduction there are many limitations and difficulties. Some courses are making great sides, with recycling systems, minimum or no chemical use and alternative bio inputs. In BOX – 1 & 2 such examples are given which are typical.

Mutation in M₂

The output of mutations in M₂ and subsequent generations solely depends upon the complex interaction between many factors in the treated organism together with the specific modes of action of particular mutagen. These results are expressed quantitatively by the mutation rate and qualitatively by the mutation spectrum. The proportion of mutated plants to normal ones which is the mutation rate can be computed on the number of mutations per 100 M₁ plants (Gustafsson, 1940), number of mutations per 100 M₁ spikes (Stadler, 1928), and number of mutants per 100 M₂ plants (Gaul, 1960). After comparing the three indices, Gaul (1960) has concluded that mutants per 100 M₂ plants provided the best index, as it is proportional to the initial mutation rate and is independent of variations in progeny size and size of mutated sector. In Pisum, Blixt (1966) has confirmed this. Mohan Rao (1972) has reported that in barley, the M₂ seedling method determined the total induced mutation frequency. This method is also superior since it accounted for the components of induced mutation frequency viz., the frequency of mutated initials in each spike primordium and the frequency of spike primordia mutated.

The qualitative output of mutation in M₂ and later generations is expressed as the mutation spectrum which reflects the different frequencies of different mutations. Westergard (1960) found that the alkylating chemicals induced a higher proportion of less drastic mutations such as Viridis compared to extreme mutations such as Albina than those induced by radiations because of their apparent slight effect on chromosomes. Sidorova (1966) found a positive correlation between the spectrum of chlorophyll and the spectrum of morphological mutations.

Introduction

The AFLP amplified fragment polymorphism also known as selective restriction fragment amplification (SRFA) technique is used to visualize hundreds of amplified DNA restriction fragments simultaneously. The AFLP band patterns, or fingerprints, can be used for many purposes, such as monitoring the identity of an isolate or the degree of similarity among isolates. Polymorphisms in band patterns map to specific loci, allowing the individuals to be genotyped or differentiated based on the alleles they carry. produces highly complex DNA profiles by arbitrary amplification of restriction fragments ligated to double-stranded adaptors with hemi-specific primers harboring adaptor-complementary 5' termini.The technique has been widely used in the construction of genetic maps containing high densities of DNA marker loci.

The AFLP protocol amplifies restriction fragments obtained by endonuclease digestion of target DNA using “universal” AFLP primers complementary to the restriction site and adapter sequence. However, not all restriction fragments are amplified because AFLP primers also contain selective nucleotides at the 3' termini that extend into the amplified restriction fragments. These arbitrary terminal sequences result in the amplification of only a small subset of possible restriction fragments. The number of amplified fragments can therefore be “tailored” by extending the number of arbitrary nucleotides added to the primer termini. Alternatively, the use of endonuclease combinations that vary in their restriction frequency can also be used to tune the number of amplicons. Generally, the abundant restriction fragments produced from complex genomes require of AFLP primers with longer selective regions. Conversely, analysis of small genomes require of only few arbitrary nucleotides added at the primer 3' termini. The resulting AFLP fingerprints are usually a rich source of DNA polymorphisms that can be used in mapping and general fingerprinting endeavors.

1.1. Definition

Alteration in one or more of physiological processes culminating in a loss of coordination of energy utilization in a plant as a result of the continuous irritation due to presence or absence of some factor or agent.

A plant is said to be diseased when there is a harmful deviation from normal functioning of physiological process (Federation of British Plant Pathologists, 1973).

Farm machinery is a range of mechanical implements used in agriculture production from land preparation to harvesting and processing the produce. It includes various ploughs, tractors, broadcaster, harvester and post harvest processing machineries. The purpose of using machines in agriculture production is to handle the mass production, improve the efficiency and to save the labour costs. The types of implements used in fodder production are tillage, sowing, intercultural, plant protection and harvesting equipments.

Introduction
Food preservation refers to an art or science which deals with the process of prevention of decay, deterioration or spoilage of food commodity to allow it to be stored in a safe condition for future use. All foods gradually undergo deterioration or spoilage from the time immediately they are harvested or manufactured. Some commodities spoil rapidly, while others can keep longer but for limited periods. The basic purposes of food preservation are:
1. Extension of shelf life of foods thus increasing the supply
2. Ensuring the availability of seasonal foods throughout the year
3. Adding variety to the diet
4. Saving time by reducing preparation time and energy
5. Stabilizing farm prices and prices of food
6. Improving the nutritional qualities The food spoilage can be caused due to growth and activity of micro-organisms, insects or rodents, action of enzymes, chemical reactions and physical changes that takes place during processing, drying, or freezing etc. Classification of Food Depending upon the type of spoilage and level of perishability, the foods are classified into three broad categories:

ABSTRACT

Family farming is the blending of experience, skill, managerial qualities, business strategies and finally economic independence because this type of farming involves the blending of different minds of the family members. There is not any doubt in saying that youth are the of future. This is the time between childhood and adulthood. It is the time when a young individual get out of their dreamy world of childhood and face some of the most complicated realities of the world. Family farming is still facing the problem of urbanization and unemployment. But youth of present scenario are the solution of every problem because skilled youth of rural background can drive future economic growth as they are innovative in bringing and applying new ideas on a large scale. Rural youth are enthusiastic and they can act as good leaders as their orientation is scientific. Youth support family farming as well as perform gender specific activities. They are said to be the key to sustainable and innovative development. Investment in rural youth is the key to country‘s progress and boost economic opportunities. Rural youth of today want that their capabilities should be utilized for producing food and for conserving productive resources in rural environment. Their mental skills make them different from others so Govt. should adopt such policies that mark the correct value of their skill. This research paper emphasizes the role of rural youth in agriculture and family farming and what are their aspirations from this sector.

1. General

In this the nature of objectives of the enterprise i.e. setting up a dairy farm, details of proposed investments, specification of the project area, name of the financing bank branch, status of beneficiary: (Individual/Partnership/Company/Corporation/Co-operative Society / Others) details of borrowers profile in terms of capability, experience, financial soundness, technical / other special qualifications are mentioned.

2. Technical Aspects

    a)    Location, Land and Land Development: This involves the site details of the proposed project. The total land area and its cost. Also, particulars of land development such as fencing, boundary wall, gates are mentioned in it. Thus, site map is also mentioned in this subheading.

    b)    Civil Structures: Several structures like sheds, milking room, store room, quarters for dairy farm manager / labourers are also to be constructed. So, their measurements as well as approximate costs need to be mentioned.

Josephson (1977) studied the effects of food irradiation and sterilization. In radiation sterilization of food (radappertization) the food is exposed in sealed containers to ionizing radiation at absorbed doses which are high enough (25-70 kGy) to kill all organisms of food spoilage and public health significance. Radappertization is analogous to thermal canning for enhancing the shelf stability. In dry products the radappertization process requires the food to be heated to an internal temperature of 70-80°C (bacon to 53°C) to inactivate autolytic enzymes which catalyze spoilage during storage without refrigeration. In order to reduce off-flavors and odors, undesirable color changes, and textural and nutritional losses from exposure to the high doses of irradiation the foods are vacuum sealed and irradiated frozen. Radappertozed foods have the characteristic of fresh foods prepared for eating. Irradiation can be a good substitute for some chemical food additives such as ethylene oxide and nitrites which are toxic, carcinogenic, mutagenic or teratogenic either wholly or in part. Till now, there is no evidence of any adverse effects of radappertization on the foods. Extensive research has taken place towards the space food. During the planning of Apollo missions, Space Food NASA Technical Reports Server (Space Food NASA Technical Reports Server, NTRS ,1994 ) conducted trials including freeze drying.

The word cereal was derived from Ceres, the name of the Roman goddess of harvest and agriculture. Cereals are grasses (members of the monocot family Poaceae, also known as Gramineae) cultivated for the edible components of their grain (botanically, a type of fruit called a caryopsis), composed of the endosperm, germ and bran. Cereal grains are grown in greater quantities and provide more food energy worldwide than any other type of crop and therefore they are called staple crops.

Anorexia in dogs with heart failure is very important clinical sign of concern as continued anorexia leads to weight loss and cardiac cachexia. Cardiac cachexia in dogs is the main reason that contributes to an owners’ decision to opt for euthanasia. It is therefore much more important to understand the various factors that lead to anorexia in dogs having heart failure.