eChapters

• Aromatic food substances, which enhance flavour are classified into spices.

• Spices are usually dried roots, barks and seeds used whole or crushed, powdered.

• Spices add a glorious touch to food with its flavour and fragrance.

• Spices add flavour, colour to food and make the food palatable.

• Stimulates salivation and acid secretion of digestive enzymes like amylase.

• Has anti-inflammatory, antibacterial and antioxidant properties.

• Reduces cholesterol levels useful in preventing heart diseases.

• Kerala is considered as the land of spices.

3.1. Different types of spices and their use

• All spice or Pimento

? A small berry, size of the pea dried to a dark brown colour.

? Flavouring component is a volatile oil present at 3 -4% levels containing eugenol and other closely related phenols.

Effectiveness of spray mixtures can be increased by addition of adjuvants. Weed Science Society of America (WSSA1994) have defined adjuvant as a material in a herbicide formulation or added to the spray tank to modify herbicidal activity or application characteristics. Adjuvants enhance activity of a herbicide in different ways viz., wetting, spreading, deposit building, emulsifying or deflocculating the active ingredient. In many cases cost of adjuvant will be less than that of active ingredient. In such cases it helps to reduce the cost of the final product.

Introduction: Food processing involves different steps from receiving raw material, preparing for product manufacture, and packaging to storage. All these steps are called unit operations. They are broadly categorized as raw
material preparation (receiving, sorting, grading, washing, peeling, blanching, slicing, cutting, dicing etc), processing (canning, drying, pulping, juicing, product manufacture like jam, jelly, preserves, candies, pickling, sauce making, etc.) and post-production handling including packaging and storage. A brief detail about each unit operation is discussed as under:
1. Raw Material Handling
Material handling includes varied operations such as hand or mechanical harvesting on the farm, transportation in trucks or refrigerated vehicles of perishable produce to the market or to the processing plant or to store/godowns. For conveying, a wide variety of mechanical conveyors is used depending on the type of material. Common conveyors used in the processing plant include screw conveyors, bucket conveyors, belt conveyors and vibratory conveyors. Throughout these operations, care is taken to maintain sanitary conditions, minimize bruises and product loss, maintain raw material quality like physical appearance, and vitamin contents, minimize microbial growth and minimize other detrimental changes to the product quality during handling etc. It also includes other unit operations like receiving, cleaning/washing, sorting, grading, peeling, halving, slicing, blanching etc for preparation of fruit and vegetables for processing.

6.1. Concept of Utility
In the ordinary language, ‘utility’ means ‘usefulness’. In Economics, utility is defined as the power of a commodity or a service to satisfy a human want. Utility is a subjective or psychological concept. The same commodity or service gives different utilities to different people. For a vegetarian, mutton has no utility. Warm clothes have little utility for the people in hot countries. So utility is determined by the consumer and his need for the commodity.
Total Utility
Total Utility is denoted by the sum of utilities of all units of a commodity consumed. For example, if a consumer consumes ten biscuits, then the total utility is the sum of satisfaction of consuming all the ten biscuits.
Marginal Utility
Marginal Utility is the addition made to the total utility by consuming one more unit of a commodity. For example, if a consumer consumes 10 biscuits, the marginal utility of 10th unit is nothing but the total utility of 10 biscuits minus the total utility of 9 biscuits.
6.2. Law Of Diminishing Marginal Utility
The law of diminishing marginal utility explains an ordinary experience of a consumer. If a consumer takes more units of a commodity, the additional utility he derives from an extra unit of the commodity goes on falling. Thus, according to this law, the marginal utility decreases with the increase in the consumption of a commodity. When marginal utility decreases, the total utility increases at a diminishing rate.

Introduction

Plant needs nutrients for their growth and development. In a systemic agriculture, nutrients are supplied to the plant in different amount, form and time for the economic and optimum crop production. Green revolution realized in the late sixties of the last century is an outcome of efficient use of improved varieties and nutrient management. Success of the green revolution has increased use of chemical fertilizers in the post green revolution era. Soon the chemical fertilizers become indispensible from all the crops including vegetable and plantation crops. Non judicious use of chemicals in the agriculture has lead to the serious health, soil and environmental hazards. Biofertilizers are considered to be the most safe, promising and economic component of sustainable agriculture. Biofertilizer is a substance which contains living or latent microorganisms which, when applied to seed, plant root or soil, colonizes the rhizosphere or the interior of the plant and promotes growth by providing and essential nutrients or increasing the supply or availability of primary nutrients to the host plant. They can applied in all the agronomic, horticultural and plantation crops.

Henderson et al., (2010) have studied the different aspects of food regulation. The authors have looked into the perceptions of Australian consumers’ who is and should be responsible for food safety. Forty-seven participants were interviewed as part of a larger study on trust in the food system. Participants associate food governance with government, industry and the individual. While few participants can name the national food regulator, there is a strong belief that the government is responsible for regulating the quality and safety of food. Personal responsibility for food safety practices was also identified. Little evidence is found in the politicisation of food, reflecting a level of trust in the Australian food governance system that may arise from a lack of exposure to major food scares. According to Wood (1990) the marketing of food service program in an Ohio district is directed toward the students and also at the community, school administrators, teachers, and employees. Students are encouraged to follow a healthier way of eating.Jones (1998) studied the role of food safety in the food chain from farm to fork. In response to growing threat of food-borne illnesses the federal government had launched the Food Safety Initiative. A key element is the Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point’s system (HACCP). Under this it has been designed to make everyone in the food-delivery chain to be responsible for ensuring a safe food supply.

Seed is the living link between plant and progeny and biologically seed is ripe fertilized ovule and a unit of reproduction of flowering plant. Agronomically, a seed material or propagule is the living organ of crop in rudimentary form used for propogation.

Propagation Asexual Sexual Seed Stem cutting Ex: Sugarcane Grafting Rooted slips Ex: Grasses Tubers Ex: Potato Budding Corms Rhizomes Layering

Plants perpetuate / multiply either sexually or asexually. Sexual methods are through seeds and asexually through vegetative parts. Most of the crop plants produce viable seeds which are used for sowing. Those used for multiplication are called seeds and those which used for human consumption are called grains.

Seed consisting of intact embryo, stored food and seed coat which is viable and has got a capacity to germinate. Embryo has two parts:

In modern agriculture, use of synthetic chemical fertilizers are essential in agriculture for sustainable yield but, these have resulted in environmental pollution. The use of synthetic fertilizer could result in serious human health issues and also affects the soil microflora, besides being costly due to high production cost. Further, excess use affects soil processes and result in nutrient imbalances in plants with increased susceptibility to pests and diseases and also affects the symbiotic associations. Under these circumstances, biofertilizers could be an alternative for integrated nutrient management system in horticulture. The entire crop production system depends on soil beneficial microflora and their activities, which makes them highly potential alternatives to synthetic chemical fertilizers.

Biofertilizers or microbial fertilizers are essential for eco-friendly and sustainable cultural practices. The term “biofertiliser” has been defined in several ways due to its unique relationships between the plant and rhizosphere microflora. Biofertilizers mainly include nitrogen fixing bacteria, phosphate solublizing and potash solubiling bacteria.

Ian Donald in the year 1956 used the one-dimensional A-mode (amplitude mode) to measure the parietal diameter of the fetal head and thus introduced the ultrasound in diagnostic and medicine. Ultrasonography does not use radiation or powerful magnetic field as source of energy and the equipment cost is usually affordable. This modality involves the use of sound waves in viewing the longitudinal, sagittal and transverse planes for both testes . Sound is measured in cycles per second or hertz (Hz); the audible range of sound is from 20-20,000 Hz. Diagnostic ultrasound is usually in the range of 1–20 megahertz (MHz).

The speed of sound depends on the tissues through which it propagates because density and compressibility change the speed, the sound wave travels. On an average the assumed speed of sound in soft tissue is 1540 m/s.

English name : Clove
Botanical name : Syzygium aromaticum Merr &Perry
Family : Myrtaceae
Chromosome number : 2n = 22
Centre of origin : Indonesia
Clove of commerce is the fully grown but unopened dried flower bud of tree Syzygium aromaticum Merrill and Perry, belonging to the family Myrtaceae. The English name “clove” is derived from the Spanish word clavo or the Latin clavus, both meaning “nail,” referring to the shape of the dried clove bud commonly found in the market. Clove is among the orient’s oldest and most valued spices, known as early as the 1st century BC. It is prized both as a spice and for its essential oil. The chemical composition of clove varies based on agroclimatic conditions and post-harvest processes.
The dried clove bud contains approximately 5.4% moisture, 6.3% protein, 13.2% volatile oil, 15.5% non-volatile ether extract (fat), 11.1% crude fibre, 57.7% carbohydrates, 5.0% mineral matter, and 0.24% ash insoluble in HCl. Additionally, it has 0.7% calcium, 0.11% phosphorus, 0.01% iron, 0.25% sodium, and 1.2% potassium. Its vitamin content includes 0.11 mg of B1, 0.04 mg of B2, 80.9 mg of vitamin C, 175 I.U. of vitamin A, and 1.5 mg of niacin per 100 g, providing a calorific value of 430 calories per 100 g. The volatile oil extracted from clove buds consists of eugenol (80-90%) and caryophyllene (4-8%).

Parasitoids are important natural enemies that regulate insect-pest populations and reduce dependence on chemical pesticides. They lay eggs in or on host insects, and their developing offspring eventually kill the hosts. Rising temperatures, altered rainfall, elevated carbon dioxide and extreme weather can affect parasitoid survival, development, reproduction, host-searching ability, distribution and seasonal activity. Climate change may also disturb synchronization between parasitoids and their hosts, thereby reducing the effectiveness of natural biological control. This chapter examines how changing climatic conditions influence parasitoid diversity, abundance and pest-suppression services. It also highlights management approaches for conserving and strengthening parasitoid populations in agricultural ecosystems.

ABSTRACT

Agroforestry a sustainable land use system being practiced since long back through out the country. A diverse climatic, edaphic, and environmental conditions prevailing in the country has made it possible to practice different kinds of agroforestry systems. The local research organizations and individuals have undertook various studies for the betterment of the local agroforestry systems for getting higher yields to meet the need of food, fodder, fuel wood etc. It was found that Jowar+Teak+Papaya followed by Chilli+Teak+Papaya combination gave more economic returns compared to pure agricultural crop. Casuarina equisetifolia, Grevillea robusta, Dalbergia sissoo and Melia dubia have been found to be suitable for agroforestry systems in dryland. Coffee based agroforestry system and other tree-crop combination tried have been elaborated in this paper.

INTRODUCTION

Agroforestry is a new word for the old practice of growing woody plants with agricultural crops and/or livestock together on the same land. Various experts and scientists working on agroforestry or involved in land use related sciences have defined agroforestry according to their individual understanding of what they call agroforestry.

“Agroforestry is sustainable management system for land that increases total production, combines agricultural crops, tree crops and forest plants and or animals simultaneously or sequentially and applies management practices that are compatible with the cultural patterns of the local population” (Chundawat and Gautham, 1993).

Jaggery making is a simple process comprising crushing of sugarcane for juice extraction, filtration and boiling of juice for concentration and then cooling and solidifying to give jiggery blocks.

English name : Nutmeg
Botanical name : Myristica fragrans Hout.
Family : Myristicaceae
Chromosome number : 2n = 44
Centre of origin : Indonesia
Nutmeg of commerce is the dried kernel inside the brown and a thin brittle shell. A scarlet aril or mace surrounds the nutmeg. The Word Myristica is derived from the Greek term Myron, which means a sweet liquid distilled from the plant. The composition of dried nutmeg includes volatile oil (6-16%), starch (14-25%), furfural (1.15%), and pectin (0.5-0.6%), while mace contains volatile oil (4-15%) and amylodextrin (25%). Both the seeds and mace are rich in essential oils. The essential oil from nutmeg seeds consists of approximately 80% pinene and camphane, 4% myristicin (which has hallucinogenic properties), as well as p-cymene, d-linalool, terpineol, geraniol, safrole, eugenol, and isoeugenol. Mace oil shares similarities with nutmeg oil but is fresher in aroma. Mace is primarily used as a culinary spice and flavouring agent.

For looking into the biosafety in research laboratories, agriculture and other food producing industries it is important to look into the numerous strains of lactic acid bacteria that are associated with food systems and are capable of producing bacteriocin or antibacterial proteins with activity against foodborne pathogens such as Listeria monocytogens, Staphylococcus aureus and Clostridium botulinum. Recently considerable attention has been given on the identification of these proteins and their biochemical properties including spectrum of activity, production conditions, purification procedures, aminoacid composition and mode of action. Advances in genetic engineering have facilitated the characterization of proteins at genetic level, providing information about protein synthesis, structure and cloning of bacteriocin genes into other organism. One problem in the use of bacteriocin in their applications as bio-preservatives is the emergence of resistant population. The understanding on the mechanism of resistance to bacteriocins is limited which limits the application in biopreservation. Much of the work on bacteriocin has been done under controlled laboratory conditions without the presence of adventitious microbial population. More research is needed to determine the efficacy of bacteriocin producing organisms and bacteriocins which are stable under commercial conditions. Foodborne illness is a major international problem and an important cause of reduced economic growth. The contamination of the food supply with the pathogens and its persistence, growth, multiplication and/or toxin production

Fruits and vegetables are important part of our dietary, which are rich source of nutrient (carbohydrates, protein, fat, vitamins, minerals, and dietary fiber). Carbohydrates, protein and fat are macronutrients, considered as energy sources. Vitamins and minerals are micro nutrient, play important role in body building. Fibers have several direct and indirect advantages. ICMR, New Delhi recommends 125g of leafy vegetables, 100g of root and tuber vegetables and 75g of other vegetables (total 300g/day) and 85g of fruits per capita every day for balance diet.

Meteorology is derived from the Greek word meteoro which means above the earth’s surface; i.e., the atmosphere. The state of the atmosphere experienced at a given time, in any location on the surface of the earth is known as weather. Thus, meteorology is the scientific study of the atmosphere or the weather. It is a branch of physics dealing with atmosphere and it is often quoted as the ‘physics of the lower atmosphere’. The main focus of meteorology is to understand the weather processes and forecast the weather. Solar radiation, the air mass and moisture are the three key ingredients that make up weather. The exchange of heat, moisture and momentum between the earth’s surface and the atmosphere determines the characteristic of weather. The observable weather events are known as meteorological phenomena and are defined by a set of variables called weather elements. Atmospheric temperature, atmospheric pressure, humidity, precipitation, cloudiness, wind and visibility, etc. are examples of such weather elements. The weather elements are not separate entities. They are closely related with each other and are highly variable in nature. Meteorology explains and analyses the changes of these weather elements.

The major subdivisions of meteorology are dynamic meteorology (or atmospheric dynamics) and physical meteorology (or atmospheric physics). The dynamic meteorology is concerned with the analysis and interpretation of the three-dimensional, time-varying, macro scale motions and energy transformations in the atmosphere. The science of dynamic meteorology is meant to develop models based on the hydrodynamic and thermodynamic equations. The physical meteorology is concerned with the processes that alter the physical properties and the chemical composition of air parcels as they move through the atmosphere.

Soil fertility depends on the physical, chemical, and biological properties of the soil. Among the biological properties, soil enzymes are used as an index of soil fertility. Soil enzymes respond to changes in soil management faster in comparison to other soil variables, and also catalyze the reactions necessary for the life processes of microorganisms in soils. The biochemical reactions are brought about by the catalytic action of enzymes. Soil enzymes include amylase, phosphatase, urease, cellulase, protease, glycosidase, and arylsulfatase. They play a role in organic material decomposition, the transformation of organic matter, nutrient cycling, nitrogen fixation, detoxification of pesticides, xenobiotics, etc., and thus regulate the ecosystem.

Depending on their location, enzymes can be extracellular or intracellular. Intracellular enzymes are found in the cell’s cytoplasm or bound to the cell walls of living and metabolically active cells. Extracellular enzymes released into the soil and are “permanently” immobilized on clay and humic colloids via ionic interactions, covalent bonds, hydrogen bonding, entrapment, and other mechanisms. There are two kinds of soil enzymes.

Mints are a group of perennial herbaceous plants, belonging to the family Lamiaceae: Labiatae, which yield essential oil on distillation. The various species of mints which are commercially cultivated in different parts of the world are: Japanese mint or corn mint or field mint (Mentha arvensis subsp haplocalyx Briquet var. Piperscens Holmes var. Javanica), peppermint (M. Piperita L.) spearmint or garden mint or lamb mint (M. spicata L.) and bergamot mint or orange mint (M. citrata Ehrh.)

Agriculture is under increasing pressure to produce more food, feed, and biofuel from limited land resources. The current over-reliance on a few key staple crops causes a variety of agronomic, ecological, nutritional, and economic issues and is likely unsustainable in the long run.

Vegetables have a high commercial value in general and hence contribute significantly to household income. Significant research, breeding, and development initiatives are necessary for a number of promising crops to transform existing local landraces into competitive cultivars with broad adaptability and high commercial prospects. India has a good genetic wealth of domesticated crops, and 600 plant species represent the diversity in vegetable crops out of 20,000 angiosperm plants; however, only one-fourth of these are used as major vegetable crops, with the rest classified as minor, underutilized/neglected, rare vegetables, lesser-known vegetables, wild edible vegetables, and so on. Access to the genetic diversity of these selected crops is required for success