eChapters

Current status of feed and fodder availability in India Globally India ranks 1st in terms of total livestock (535.78 million) and buffalo population in the world (109.85 million), 2nd in cattle (192.49 million), goat (148.88 million) and 3rd in sheep population. So, the availability of adequate quantity and quality feed and fodder resources for livestock is essential for improving livestock productivity. Grazing lands and fodder cultivation areas are gradually dwindling either due to degradation or restriction for livestock grazing. Total area under fodder cultivation is around 8.4 mha (5.23%) which is almost static for the past two decades. Even though feed and fodder availability has improved in the last decade still gap exists with demand and availability of fodder during lean periods and abnormal weather conditions like droughts/floods. At present, India faces a net deficit of 35.6% green fodder (GF), 10.95% dry crop residues and 44% concentrate feeds. In India, open forest cover is around 29 million hectares (mha), which can be further utilized for growing fodder trees without affecting standing trees, mostly as an under- storey on the partially shaded ground Area under fodder production Sorghum (2.6 M ha) and Egyptian clover (1.9 M ha) account for roughly 54% of the total cultivated fodder area in the kharif and

The oilseeds crop occupies an important position in agriculture economy in the world. Indian agriculture has made considerable progress, particularly in respect of food crops such as wheat and rice in irrigated areas; however, performance has not been so good in case of other crops particularly oilseeds, pulses, and coarse cereals. Therefore, after achieving self sufficiency in food grains the government is focusing attention on these agricultural commodities. On the oilseeds map of the world, India occupies a prominent position, both in regard to acreage and production. India is the 4th largest edible oil economy in the world and contributes about 10 percent of the world oilseeds production, 6-7% of the global production of vegetable oil, and nearly 7 percent of protein meal. This sector also has an important place in the Indian agricultural sector covering an area of about 26.5 million hectares, with total production of over 25.3 million tonnes in the triennium ending 2015-16 (GOI, 2016). This constitutes about 14.8 per cent of the gross cropped area in the country. A wide range of oilseed crops is produced in different agro-climatic regions of the country. Insects-pests are one of the limiting factors in the production of oilseed crops. Management of these pest problems by using possible control techniques could increase the quality and quantity of the products. These crops are damaged by a more number of insect pests, of which some are more serious. These pests can be effectively controlled by the integration of different techniques such as use of various safe insecticides/biopesticides, some modification in cultural practices and use of pest tolerant varieties. Integrated pest management approaches will help to increase the production and productivity of oilseed crops by reducing the pest damage without any adverse effect on the agro- system and erosion in the environment. 

Pest wise information of oilseed crop and management of major pests are described below.

Introduction

World’s population is continuously on the rise, triggering the demand for food. The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO, 2011) observed that 70% increase in food production will be needed to sustain the globe’s population by 2050. Though, increase in agricultural production and productivity is said to be the panacea to solve food security issues, the greatest challenge that need to be addressed is the inefficiencies in the supply chain; instigated by insufficient storage capacities and perishability of food products. Food preservation and processing is highlighted in this context, as it serves to conserve/improve the quality and reduce food loss due to wastage as well as add nutritional security.

Advances in seed production techniques have revolutionized brinjal cultivation, enhancing productivity, quality, and sustainability. Traditional methods, such as manual emasculation and pollination, have been supplemented and in some cases replaced by innovative approaches, contributing to increased efficiency and reduced labor costs. Cytoplasmic male sterility (CMS) and grafting technologies have emerged as valuable tools, offering novel avenues for enhancing breeding efficiency and managing soil-borne pathogens. These advancements have facilitated the development of high-yielding F1 hybrids and improved pure-line varieties with enhanced resilience to pests and diseases. Furthermore, the adoption of precision agriculture techniques, including controlled environment agriculture and hydroponics, has enabled year-round seed production, mitigating the impact of seasonal fluctuations and adverse weather conditions. Integrated pest management (IPM) strategies have been integrated into seed production protocols, minimizing chemical inputs and promoting environmentally sustainable practices. Additionally, innovations in seed extraction methods, such as mechanical extraction and dry extraction techniques, have streamlined the seed processing workflow, resulting in higher seed purity and improved germination rates.

High temperature stress
Abiotic stresses either individually or in combination cause morphological, physiological, biochemical and molecular changes that adversely affect plant growth and ultimately yield. The major forms of abiotic stress plants are exposed to in nature are heat, drought, cold and salinity. Of these abiotic stresses, heat stress has an independent mode of action on the physiology and metabolism of plant cells. High temperatures above optimal have generally damaging effects on plant development which has led to the prediction that Global warming have a negative effect on plant growth. High temperature regimes may cause severe yield reduction leading to even famine. High temperature stress has wide range of effects on plant in terms of physiology, biochemistry and gene regulation pathways. The susceptibility to high temperatures in plants varies with the stage of plant development and genotype.
Mechanisms of heat tolerance
Heat tolerance is generally defined as the ability of the plant to grow and produce economic yield under high temperature conditions. Several plant physiological parameters and mechanisms that contribute to heat tolerance in the field include:

Introduction
Aquaculture is one of the sunrise sectors contributing a significant quantity to the global supply of fish for human consumption. Fish is a superior source of highquality animal protein and highly digestible energy. Disease problems in farmed fishes are one of the main barriers, resulting in significant financial losses up to a tune of US$2.48 B, 14.95% of the annual aquaculture production value in Indian aquaculture. In the aquatic environment, bacteria are quite prevalent and the majority of bacterial pathogens are found in the water’s natural flora. They only spread illness when poor husbandry practices, inadequate nutrition, and unfavourable environmental circumstances contribute to fish stress. Pathogenic bacteria, including Aeromonas spp, Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus spp, Salmonella spp., Shigella spp., Yersinia enterocolitica, Clostridium botulinum, Plesiomonas shigelloides, and Listeria monocytogenes, can be either naturally present in fish or introduced to them during handling, processing, and storage. Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) in Indian aquaculture presents a multifaceted and growing challenge at the intersection of public health, environmental sustainability, and food security. As aquaculture expands to meet rising global demands for protein, the sector has increasingly relied on antimicrobials to prevent and treat bacterial infections. However, due to some indiscriminate and unregulated use of these agents as well as the householdsewage, hospital effluents, contamination from agricultural wastes andinadequately treated urban waters that enter the aquaculture through drains and rivers,creates strong selective pressure and accelerate the development and dissemination of resistant pathogens in aquatic environments posing a serious threat not only to farmed fish but also to human health through environmental contamination and the broader food chain. Resistant bacteria and resistance genes can spread through water systems, biofilms, and aquaculture products, creating reservoirs that contribute to the broader One Health AMR crisis. Food borne pathogens (Aeromonas spp., Vibrio spp., and Streptococcus spp.) from aquatic animals were found resistant to antimicrobial agents that are relevant for therapeutic usage in human clinical settings. E. coliwas found to be resistant as a sign of possible human and terrestrial animal effects. Distinguishing resistance that has been selected in different sectors is extremely difficult and caution is needed while trying to attribute the source of antibiotic resistance in bacteria in the aquatic environment. Understanding the drivers, mechanisms, and impacts of AMR in aquaculture is essential for developing effective mitigation strategies and sustainable management practices that safeguard both aquatic and human health.

The study of general reproduction and reproductive performance in animals is a vast and intricate field that spans across various species, habitats, and biological systems. Reproduction is a fundamental biological process that ensures the continuity of life across generations. It involves a series of complex physiological and behavioural events, from mating and fertilization to gestation and birth. The general reproduction and reproductive performance in domesticated animals is a fascinating and complex field that has significant implications for various aspects of human society, including agriculture, pet ownership, and conservation efforts. Domesticated animals encompass a wide range of species, from farm animals such as cows and chickens to pets like dogs and cats, and even animals kept for conservation or recreational purposes, such as horses and certain bird species. Each of these species has unique reproductive systems and cycles, and understanding these is crucial for effective management and care. For instance, the gestation period for dogs is typically around two months, while for horses, it’s closer to a year. Similarly, some birds, like parrots, may lay eggs only once or twice a year

ABSTRACT

Bioinformatics is a critical tool in designing the molecular biology experiments. The xeroxing of specific part of genome needs correct primer designing. Primer designing has central role in molecular biology right from cloning, sequencing, gene expression profiling by real time PCR, genotyping by RFLP, SNP analysis by real time PCR and auto sequencer. In this chapter we are describing how to proceed for experimental designing right from data mining from GENEBANK to designing of primers for various common molecular genetic analysis work. The write up also describes in silico evaluation of primers, various off line commercial and non-commercial software, on line free software and trouble shootings in primer designing, The different strategy described in context of primer designing would be of immense use of researchers.

Introduction

Food processing comprise of techniques employed to transform raw ingredients into final food product or to preserve the food product. Food processing industry as well as at domestic scale the food processing methods aim at providing processed food products for daily consumption by humans and animals. Food processing aims at increasing the shelf life, preserve, make nutritious or ready to eat foods, and getting the best quality final products. There are various techniques and methods which come under food processing such as drying, dehydration, fermentation, pickling, freezing, mixing, pumping, pasteurization, cooking and homogenization etc.

Rheological properties of foods are greatly influenced by various unit operations and processing methods or conditions such as heating and mechanical treatments. Processing of different food products such as dairy, fruit and vegetable products like jams and purees, chocolates, dough development etc. and basic make up of foods such as fats, proteins and others such as emulsifiers, hydrocolloids etc. affects the rheological properties of food product and which ultimately affects the quality of end product. Apart from processing conditions the compositional variations have a great impact on the textural or rheological properties of foods. The changes in rheological characteristics of a food product reflects the alterations in the molecular structure of the food material, this can aid in revealing the changes in product structure during different processing methods or conditions. In designing of various processes such as cooling, freezing and equipment design information about thermal properties is crucial. Moreover, in order to design storage structures for foods and refrigeration equipment the knowledge of thermal properties is important (Becker et al. 2003).

For rheological measurements various tests and techniques are available, such as steady and dynamic shear measurements. From the steady shear properties flow properties of the sample can be revealed whether the flow is Newtonian or Non Newtonian. In case of dynamic shear rheological properties information on viscoelastic characteristics can be withdrawn in terms of storage and loss modulus and depending on the predominance of each modulus the nature of sample can be predicted i.e. whether viscoelastic solid or viscoelastic fluid (Bhardwaj et al. 2019). Apart from these measurements, other rheological measurements are available for specific food materials, such as farinograph, alveo-consistograph, mixograph etc. are meant for study of rheological properties of dough. So, accordingly, depending upon the food material choice of rheological measurement can be made. To study the thermal transitions DSC (Differential scanning calorimeter) and DTA (Differential thermal analysis) are commonly employed. Dynamic measurements as a function of temperature or time are made in these techniques to detect the endothermal and exothermal changes. These techniques can be used to determine the phase transitions in various foods, for instance, crystallization and melting of water, lipids and other food components; denaturation of protein; gelatinization of starch and others (Roos 2015).

Fruit jelly is an important part of diet of all human being. It is easily digestible, highly refreshing, appetizing and nutritionally far superior to many foods. Today, a wide variety of fruit jellies are consumed in the home, at work place and sport stadium. There has been considerable increase in the consumption of fruit and vegetable jellies in the world during last few years. Jelly is a semi-solid product prepared by boiling a clear strained fruit extract free from pulp after the addition of required amount of sugar, citric acid and pectin. It should contain minimum 65 percent of total soluble solids and minimum 45 percent of fruit portion (Dhawan, 1998). Guava is rich source of pectin and acid content and have thick flesh is preferred for jelly making. For getting good quality jelly, mix under-ripe fruits give better pectin content and ripe fruits provide the flavor. Winter season fruits yield better quality jelly (Singh and Dhawan, 1983). It is a clear or translucent fruit spread made from sweetened fruit (or vegetable) juice and set using naturally occurring pectin. Additional pectin may be added where the original fruit does not supply enough. Jelly can be made from sweet, savory or hot ingredients. It is made by a process similar to that used for making jam, with the additional step of filtering out the fruit pulp after the initial heating.

Jellies are the products used as bread spreads all over the world. These are made from fruits rich in pectin. Guava, because of its rich pectin content, is processed into jelly. Processing of guava into jelly is practiced by processors all over the world. Colouring of jams and jellies has been an age old practices colorants. Great attention is being paid now days to the usage of natural colours in view of the hazards that the synthetic colours pose to human health. Incorporation of carrot resulted in colour improvement over control. Jelly containing carrot as a colouring source was found slightly better than other vegetables. Jelly is a semi-solid product prepared by boiling a clear strained fruit extract free from pulp after the addition of required amount of sugar, citric acid and pectin. It should contain minimum 65% of total soluble solids and minimum 45% of fruit portion (Dhawan, 1998).

Introduction Sea food processing is one of the major contributors in food processing sector. The purpose of seafood processing is to prevent the wastage and prolong the shelf life of highly perishable commodity. It also increases the economy of the country through exports (Gopal et al., 2014). India produce 9.6 million MT of sea food during the every year and is one of the largest fish producers in the world. 23% of marine products are processed currently in India (Sathianandan, 2017). Pasteurized crab meat is one type of processed marine commodity exported from India. Globally, the pasteurized blue crab and swimming crabs are the major contributors to the economic wellbeing of the seafood industry. In India, pasteurized crab meat industries are significantly contributing to the export markets. Among the crab export, 70-80% is exported as pasteurized crab meat (Jebadurai17, 2014).

Chilli (Capsicum annuum L.) and bell pepper (Capsicum annuum var. grossum) are economically significant crops in India, known for their distinct attributes and culinary uses. Despite their shared progenitor, these crops exhibit varietal differences and require specific breeding strategies for hybrid seed production due to small flower size. The development of male sterile systems has revolutionized hybrid seed production, with the exploitation of Genetic Male Sterility (GMS) and Cytoplasmic Male Sterility (CMS) in chilli and bell pepper breeding. The market for chilli seeds in India is substantial, driven by the demand for high-value hybrid seeds. This chapter comprehensively reviews the botanical characteristics, genetic resources, and breeding objectives in Capsicum species, emphasizing traits like disease resistance, high yield, and stress tolerance. It also highlights varietal achievements in public and private sectors, showcasing improved cultivars and hybrids with specific attributes. The integration of molecular markers in male sterile genes facilitates efficient hybrid seed production, ensuring genetic purity and quality. Additionally, the package of practices for seed production in chilli underscores the importance of isolation, field standards, inspection, harvesting, seed processing, and quality standards to maintain seed purity and viability.

Introduction

From earlier chapters, it is evident that Lactobacilli and Bifidobacteria are the two important genera that have potent applications in food microbiology and human nutrition due to their role in food and feed production, preservation and also due to probiotic potentialities. Most of the bacterial species are still unknown indicating that the identification and classification of bacteria is a hard task since the beginning of microbiology and consequently our knowledge about bacterial ecology is very low. Mean while the expectations about novel bacterial products are high. Therefore, bacterial identification has become a growing field of interest in microbiology. Since, Lactobacilli and Bifidobacteria genera include a large number of species and strains exhibiting important properties in an applied context, chiefly in the area of probiotics as food and therapeutics, an updated list of species belonging to these two genera, their phylogenetic relationships and other relevant taxonomic information are of great significance. The classification and identification of a probiotic isolate at strain level point out its typical habitat and origin. Moreover, the species, or genus name, may also indicates the strain’s safety and technical applicability for its use in probiotic products. Taxonomy helps to place a newly identified organism in a relevant group and enables the scientific communication. Further it facilitates the construction of databases that can be used for rapid identification of organisms at laboratory level easily. Thus, taxonomy of Lactobacilli and Bifidobacteria helps to study these organisms scientifically and allows characterizing and arranging them in an orderly manner which promote the scientific community to explore the benefits from those organisms for the betterment of mankind.

Introduction

Compared to the previous decades, the scope and power of intellectual property rights (IPRs) in agriculture and biotechnology has grown substantially and their international reach has expanded. The IP regime has set up the stage for healthy competition among research centres and industries for developing and seeking novel technologies. However, compared to developed countries, once the technology is created, not much attention is paid in the developing nations on their commercial, policy, environmental, ethical and societal implications. Hence, better techniques are needed for their management, to create policy and educate professionals to commercialize and govern them. Due to the critical role of technology in a competitive environment, strategic technology management is important for farmers and agri-enterprises too. The translation of nascent technologies into new products/ services and their commercialization requires some amount of hand-holding, mentoring and incubation support.

ABSTRACT

The lower Shivaliks of Jammu and Kashmir comprise 12% of the total area of Jammu region. The productivity of the soils is not only low but highly unstable. High intensity monsoonal rains coupled with rolling topography, low organic matter and coarse nature of the soils are primarily responsible for soil erosion in the region. Soil loss due to erosion depletes the soil nutrients and, is primarily responsible for land degradation, low productivity and poor economic status of the farmers in the region. Further, the adoption level of the farmers regarding modern conservation techniques is also low. Though soil erosion can be controlled or minimized through agronomical and/or mechanical techniques but agroforestry intervention is one such option which can be used for managing the land in the problematic conditions. Agroforestry systems have proven potential of conserving soil and water besides enrichment of soil through biomass additions. Agroforestry systems, therefore, help curtail soil erosion both by intercepting the rain and minimising its erosivity as well as by reducing the erodibility of the soil. Tree based cropping systems enhance the organic content in soils and therefore, create more stable aggregates, which provide more resistance to erosive forces. The chapter discusses the importance of agroforestry in the fragile Shivaliks of Jammu and Kashmir and suggest how to conserve and restore degraded lands in the region.

The Seed Act 1966 was passed by the Indian Parliament on 29th December 1966 and it came into force from 2nd October, 1969. In addition, Seed Regulation Order was also passed in December 1983.

This chapter deals with some important terms and their concepts related to the study which are essential to convey the ideas of the study effectively and also to provide a theoretical base for the empirical investigation and guidance for the selection of relevant predictor variables.

3.1 Human Happiness and Estimation

A state of mental or emotional wellbeing known as happiness is characterized by pleasant or good emotions, which can range from contentment to ecstatic delight. Happy emotions can also be a reflection of how someone feels about their general well-being.

Introduction Aquaculture is one of the world’s fastest-growing food industries, providing a sustainable source of income for millions of people (Mohanty et al., 2018, Troell et al., 2014; FAO 2018). From the total world’s production around 33% of the all harvested fishes are not only utilized for human utilization for different reasons like size, species, quality, amount, non-accessibility of handling or transportation office. Today, waste generated from fish processing is a major source of pollution in the environment. Even when excellent grade fish is produced, only 50% of it is consumed by humans, with the remainder being discarded as waste. These wastes, which are dumped in an open environment without being treated, produces foul odour, which, as previously said, might be a reason of environmental pollution, water pollution and other municipal difficulties. Fish meal and oil made from low-grade fish and discarded fish parts not only solves many of these health and environmental issues, but also boosts the fishing and fish processing sectors’ overall revenue. With the rapid build-up in yearly extraction since 2000, global usage of natural resources has increased dramatically in recent years, reaching 92.1 billion tonnes and resulting in a 254% rise from 27 billion in the nineteenth century (Coppola et al., 2021). As a result, the research is stepping up its attempts to develop a circular bio-economy that aspires to increase the value of material flows while also achieving sustainable consumption and production. It is a new idea that is gaining traction for the goal of ensuring human quality of life through the effective and sustainable use of resources, energy, and infrastructure.

Introduction

The technology behind Internet search engines is advancing quickly, and this has an impact on how individuals find the information they need online as well as how search engines improve their algorithms (N. Zafar et al. 2022). Search engines are playing a prime role in generating leads for businesses (Olbrich and Schultz, 2014), Because of this, search engines are regarded as the most recent online communication channels for dynamic marketing (Olbrich and Schultz, 2014). To examine how academic institutions (in higher education) use the web to facilitate student relations and identify how prospective students are using the Internet to research academic institutions, Will et al. conducted a study that involved the analysis of more than 3000 university websites. The web continues to be the primary research resource for prospective students, counselors, and parents. The research was undertaken (Sampath Kumar and Kumar, 2013) to determine whether or not academics utilized search engines to access scholarly content from the internet. 285 (95%) of the 300 respondents used search engines to find academic content, compared to just 5% who didn’t. To access the Ed-tech companies that are playing a role in academia, comparable assessment is crucial.

Introduction

Preceding chapters discuss the essentials of probiotics, their role in maintaining gut health in combination with prebiotics and significance of systematic classification of probiotic isolates. Further, to draw an idea how probiotics function in the gut, it is essential to know the interaction of probiotics with other microorganisms in the gastrointestinal milieu - the site of their probiotic action. Knowledge in the ecology of probiotic microorganisms in host environment such as gut gives an ideal picture of their functioning manner and the factors (both host and microbial) responsible for it.

Study of microbial ecology in the gastrointestinal tract is very difficult since gut harbors highly diversified microflora that varies not only at species level but also at individual level. The diversity of gut microflora in two healthy individuals of same species may exhibit variations in their composition and it may be influenced by geodemographic factors also. In this regard, the present chapter deals with the study of ecology of Lactobacillus- most commonly used probiotic bacteria in the gastrointestinal tract which in turn helps in framing selection criteria for screening of potential probiotics.

Recent studies on interaction between human and gut microflora discussed that co-evolution between microorganisms and their host have contributed for the development of a very complex microbial diversity in the gut. Highly diversified microflora in the human gut is a consequence of natural selection at two levels, top-down and bottom-up selection pressure. Hierarchy theory expounds that higher levels compel lower levels for possible organizational solutions i. e. organisms at the higher levels govern the structure or population dynamics of an ecosystem while on contrary lower levels control the structure of ecology when bottom-up level is the selection pressure. In case of interaction between human and gut microflora, being host human is at higher level in the hierarchy for selection and as mentioned above, top down selection pressure is driven by higher levels; host selects the beneficial microorganisms for functional redundancy leading to the development of a microbial community with divergent microbial divisions. Chances for lateral gene transfer also thought to influence the selection process and there by structure of the microbial community. On the other hand, competition among the members of host selected microbiota exert bottom up selection pressure resulting in the development of highly specialized genomes with functionally prominent set of genes. Natural selection at host level obviously favors functionally constant microbial communities which benefits the host with functional redundancy encoded in their genomes. Mean while bottom-up cell-level selection pressure aspire to favor niche specialization to avoid competition between the members of microbial community. In order to be a part of specialized niche, to become more potent microorganisms adapt a particular set of abiotic and biotic factors within the habitat by acquiring new sets of genes essential for their survival and thus escape the competition from decrepit microbial species.