eChapters

During photochemical reactions of photosynthesis, takings place in the chloroplast lamellas system, electrons flow from water to NADP resulting in generation of a powerful reductant NADPH. Simultaneously, water is oxidised and O₂ oxygen is released. This reaction is known as Hills reaction. The rate of production of NADPH and ATP in the photochemical reaction is directly associated with the oxidation of water the sole electron donor. So the photochemical efficiency can be measured by measuring the rate of oxygen evolution.

Since oxygen evolution is a good reflection of the photochemical activity of chloroplast, determination of the rate of oxygen evolution can be conveniently adopted to estimate the photochemical activities. Normally oxygen evolution as a measure of photochemical reactions, is measured either in isolated chloroplasts or in the excised leaf discs using an oxygen electrode. An oxygen electrode is a special form of chemical electrode cell in which the current generated is proportional to the activity of oxygen present. This equipment is widely used for determining the amount of oxygen liberated during the photochemical reaction either in isolated chloroplasts or in leaf bits. Though oxygen electrode is the most frequently used technique to determine the rate of oxygen evolution, there are a few indirect methods to quantify the amount of oxygen evolved.

In photosynthesising tissues or in isolated chloroplasts, the rate of oxygen liberation can be determined by using appropriate artificial electron acceptors and donors (artificial electron donor and acceptors are compounds which can substitute the physiological electron transport carriers and helps in understanding the electron transport mechanisms and ATP synthesis). Oxygen is a powerful oxidizing agent which means it readily oxidizes another compound and itself gets reduced to water. This property can be effectively used in qualitative and quantitative determination of oxygen evolution in green leaves exposed to light. The oxygen that is liberated during the photochemical reactions can be determined by using an appropriate organic substance which can be readily oxidized by oxygen.

Transpiration is the loss of water through areal parts of the plants particularly leaves in the form of water vapour and 95% of the transpiration is through stomata and the rest from cuticle and the lensi cells.

Transpiration can be measured in several ways. The most commonly used technique as the whole plant level is the gravimetric technique where in the amount of water loss through transpiration is measured of monitoring the amount of water added by measuring the loss in weight. Another method is the direct measurement using equipments specially designed for this purpose, which steadily include porometers. Transpiration is also being measured using the portable photosynthesis systems. In the laboratory transpiration rate can be measured using a very simple technique as follows,

Stomata are pores formed between two specialized epidermal cells, the guard cells, which are found on the surface of aerial parts of higher plants (leaves). They control the gas exchange between the leaf and the ambient air. Their main functions is to facilitate the entry of CO² into the leaf for photosynthesis and loss of water vapour for evaporative cooling of the leaves.

The guard cells are formed by the transverse division of stomatal mother cells that differ morphologically and biochemically from other epidermal cells. The middle lamella disintegrates and the two walls separate leaving an opening between them the stomatal pore. The walls bordering the pore become considerably thickened. They are generally cutinised. This radial thickening of the inner wall plays an important role in stomatal movement. Stomata control 95 per cent or more of CO² and water vapour exchange between the leaf and atmosphere.

Location and occurrence of stomata: Stomata are found in all higher plants down to the evolutionary level of the phylum Bryophyta. Stomata are not found in liverworts. In the leaves of most herbaceous plants the stomata are found in both upper (Adaxial) and the lower (Abaxial) surfaces. Such leaves are known as Amphistomatus. Usually in tree species, stomata are found only on the lower surface of the leaves. Such leaves are called Hypostomatus. Aquatic plants with floating leaves such as water lilies have stomata only on the upper surface and such leaves are called Epistomatus. Most of submerged aquatic plants do not posses stomata and diffusion of gases occurs between water and plant tissues across a thin cuticle. In many cases subsidiary cells are present adjacent to the guard cells. These are specialized epidermal cells which are usually different in size and shape from other epidermal cells. They are usually smaller than the epidermal cells and have more dense cytoplasmic contents and a greater frequency of cell organelles. In grasses and some other species, subsidiary cells are intimately involved in stomatal mechanism.

Diffusion of gases through stomata is governed by the two important parameters associated with the stomata, viz., the stomatal frequency and the extent of opening of the stomata. Stomatal frequency is defined as the number of stomata per unit leaf area (no.mm ^-2 ). Apart from the stomatal frequency, yet another parameter that reflects the stomatal distribution is the stomatal Index. It is the ratio of the number of stomata per unit leaf area to the total number of epidermal cells and is generally expressed in percentage.

Objective: To estimate qualitatively various chlorophyll fractions

Materials Required: Leaf material, acetone, petroleum ether, distilled water, methyl alcohol, potassium hydroxide, diethyl ether, separating funnels, stand beakers and conical flasks.

Principle: In biological systems the molecule absorbing radiant energy in the visible range is referred as a pigment. To the human eye these pigments are coloured: chlorophyll is green, carotenoids are red or yellow, xanthophylls is yellow and phytochrone is blue. These pigments are complex molecules. Chlorophylls are the most important pigments active in photosynthesis. At least nine different types of chlorophylls are known – chlorophyll a, b, c, d, e bacteriochlorophylls a and b and chlorobium chlorophylls 650 and 660. Chl a and chl b are best known pigments. In addition to chlorophyll, carotenoids, xanthophylls etc. Are also present as accessory pigments. The chlorophylls are directly involved in photosynthetic electron transport the other pigments serve as accessory pigments and they also serve the purpose of light harvesting.

There are different organic molecules are soluble in different organic solutions, however, their solubility is differential in different chemicals. Based on the nature the chlorophyll pigments can be separated and identified.

A metabolic cell contains about 75-95% water by weight. It is important for plants for proper growth and development. Any significant reduction in availability will affects metabolic activity and thus growth parameters which determine yield. The uptake of water by the plant (roots) from the soil is an osmotic phenomenon. The water potential represents the free energy per moles of water. It can be reduced by:

1. Decreasing temperature
2. Adding soluble pressure or
3. Decreasing pressure or
4. Providing additional absorptive surface

Basic LabTechniques - This laboratory is intended to:

(1) Provide an introduction to basic techniques used in biology labs

(2) provide some experience with the equipment employed in future labs

2.1 Microscopy

The compound light microscope is a veryimportant tool in the study of biology. Typical compound light microscopes allow specimens to be viewed at 400 to 1000 times their actual size (total magnification is determined by multiplying the objective lens magnification by the ocularlens magnification). Thelight microscopeis made up of a system of lenses aligned in such a way thatallows magnification, as well as improved resolution. The resolution obtainable is also dependent on contrastin the specimen. Contrast can be adjusted with the iris diaphragm, located below the condenser lens,and can also be enhanced by the addition of stains to the specimen.

Scientific drawings of specimens observed under the light microscope are often used to provide a record of what was viewed. Proper scientific drawings should be neatly drawn,with smooth lines, in pencil (they should never be in colour). More than one cellshould be drawn to illustrate the cellularassociation to the observer(e.g.found singly or as part of a tissue). Labels should be added using straight horizontal lines to the right side of the drawing, and care should be taken with singular and plural forms of structural terminology. To demonstrate differences in density of specific structures, use stippling rather than shading. A figure caption thatindicates the specimen viewed, how viewed, and the to right side of the drawing, and care should be taken with singular and plural forms of structural terminology. To demonstratedifferences in densityof specific structures, use stippling rather than shading. Afigure caption thatindicatesthe specimen viewed, how viewed, and the magnification of the drawing is always necessary.

Crop physiology is the study of the ways in which plant physiological processes are integrated to cause whole plant responses in communities. The subject matter of crop physiology includes the ways in which the knowledge of plant physiology is applied for better management of crops.

Genetic potential of a plant and its interaction with environmental factors decides its growth and development by influencing or modifying certain internal processes. Plant physiology studies about these internal processes and their functional aspects. It helps to understand various biological processes of the plants like photosynthesis, respiration, transpiration, translocation, nutrient uptake, plant growth regulation through hormones and such other processes which have profound impact on crop yield. Many aspects of Agriculture can benefit from more intensive research in plant physiology to provide practical solutions in agriculture. Understanding the physiological aspects of seed germination, seedling growth, crop establishment, vegetative development, flowering, fruit and seed setting and crop maturity provides a reasonable scientific base for effective monitoring and beneficial manipulation of these phenomenon’s. Studying this phenomenon with a view to develop better crop management practices forms the subject matter of crop physiology. Later on several research works were carried out to understand the processes like translocation of food materials, their partitioning towards economic yield, storage mechanisms, physiology of flowering, effect of stressful environmental factors on crop growth and development, role of plant growth regulators in increasing the crop productivity etc. All these areas have enriched the knowledge of physiological processes and their role in deciding the crop yield. Crop physiology covers different topics such as seed germination and proper establishment of seedling depends upon various internal and external factors. Knowledge in seed physiology helps in understanding of different physiological and morphological changes that occur during germination. Any deviation in these processes causes seed dormancy. The dormant condition of the seed, bars immediate use of harvested seed for next crop which is important in intensive agriculture. By understanding the causes and effects of this problem, crop physiologists have come up with different methods of breaking the seed dormancy. Nutriophysiology is yet another important area to understand crop physiology. For the healthy growth of a crop, around 16 essential elements are required. Knowledge of nutriophysiology has helped in identification of essential nutrients, ion uptake mechanisms, their deficiency symptoms and corrective measures. It also helps to check the toxicity symptoms of various nutrients.

INTRODUCTION

The Ginkgo tree (Ginkgo biloba) is the only living representative of the order Ginkgoales, a group of gymnosperms of the family Ginkgoaceae. Ginkgo tree can live for as long as 1000 years and has been present for over 250 million years (“Living Fossil”). The name Ginkgo is believed to have come from the Chinese word sankyo or yin-kuo, meaning “hill apricot” or “silver apricot”. The species name “biloba,” meaning two lobes, refers to the unique twolobed, fanlike leaves. Ginkgo has been used as both food and medicine for thousands of years. It is the only tree to have survived atomic blast in Hiroshima (Singh et al., 2008).Seeds of Ginkgo were recorded in the early Chinese records on herbals as a medicine.

G. biloba extract (GBE), is the extracts of Ginkgo leaves, and is available as filmcoated tablets, liquid formulations or injectable in markets of Europe and America.

Standardized extract of the leaves of the G. biloba, labeled EGb761, is one of the popular herbal supplements. GBE has been used in traditional Chinese medicine for centuries for treating circulatory disorders, asthma, tinnitus, vertigo, and cognitive problems. Currently, GBE is among the most commonly taken phytomedicines globally, and is approved in Germany for treatment of cerebral insufficiency (memory loss associated with Alzheimer, vascular or multiinfarct dementia) and conditions such as, tinnitus (ringing in the ears), vertigo and intermittent claudication that results in poor circulation (Mohanta, 2012).

INTRODUCTION

Crataegus species, or hawthorn, are shrubs or small trees that have been widely and globally used for treating cardiac problems (arrhythmia, angina, hypertension and gastrointestinal ailments. Fruits of the plant are also consumed as food and nutritional supplement. Crataegus species has several pharmacological properties attributable primarily to presence of flavonoids and anthocyanins. The major flavonoids reported are hyperoside, vitexin, and glycosylated derivatives of these compounds. Crataegus has been listed as the plant for future in terms of its utility and significance. Though the species can be easily grown, its commercial cultivation is not yet popular. This presentation highlights the medicinal significance of the species for its greater utilization.

INTRODUCTION

In India, medicinal plants have traditionally occupied an important place in the socio-cultural, spiritual and health related aspects of peoples’ life. As much as 34% (ca. 6000) of total plant wealth have some known medicinal value (Ved, 2008). The genus Ephedra is one such important group of medicinal plants, from which the drug Ephedrine and a range of medicinally active compounds such as ephedrine, pseudoephedrine, norephedrine, norpseudoephedrine, methyl ephedrine, methyl pseudoephedrine, alkaloids, phenols, terpenoids are obtained. Owing to its medicinal properties, genus Ephedra is in high demand by pharmaceutical industries. It is currently facing heavy extraction pressure from its restricted habitat in the wild, and utterly lacks effective proper conservation and management efforts. For long-term conservation management of this genus, a better and comprehensive understanding of the species remains a top priority, for which detailed studies on its biology, habitat ecology, and agro-technology are required.

INTRODUCTION

Tribulus terrestris L. (Gokhru) is an important industrial herb, belonging to family Zygophyllaceae which includes 285 species representing around two dozen genera. Members of this family are distributed in tropical and warm climates. Most species are shrubs, but some grow as small trees or herbs. T. terrestris is a mat forming plant that grows extensively in warm and dry areas all over the world. In China, India, Greece and other parts of the world, the species finds wide application in folk medicine, in polyherbal formulations and as food supplement for physical rejuvenation, to enhance muscle strength, sexual potency, etc. Amidst many positive claims, clinical trials are recommended to evaluate its reported toxicity in animals.

INTRODUCTION

Himalayan region is known for the diversity of its cultural heritage and climate. In Indian part, this mountain range includes states of Uttarakhand, Himachal Pradesh and Jammu & Kashmir. The climatic variability of the region,from sub-tropical to extreme dry temperate, offers great attraction to naturalists, all across the globe. The forest formations here are the natural habitats of a large number of flora and fauna. The flora found in these forests varies with the altitudinal gradient and is quite distinct. In the sub-tropical Himalayas, for example,the predominant vegetation is of deciduous type consisting of trees, shrubs, scrubs, climbers and xerophytes. Man-made Chir pine forests can also be witnessed. At middle elevation, the climate is sub-temperate and supports a mix of broad leaves and pines forests.In the high reaches including Trans Himalayas, climate is typically wet or dry temperate. In the wet temperate climate, evergreen forests are the predominant vegetation, whereas, the dry temperate areas do not support any significant vegetation.This variation in climate and altitude has a great impact on the biodiversity found in the region, and represents about seven percent of the country’s total biodiversity.

Among this diversity, many valuable and rare medicinal and aromatic plants grow wild in the region. The herbs which are traded from this region are of immense value for the preparation of Ayurvedic drugs in the form of monoherbal preparations or as multi-compound herbal formulations. Charak Samhita mentions that the herbs of the Himalayan forests excel in efficacy.

Abstract

Dactylorhiza hatagirea (D.Don) Soo, a plant species native to Indian Himalayas (Badola and Aitken, 2003; Ved et al., 2003), is one of 110 orchids known for their medicinal properties (Jain 1991; Lal et al., 2004). Known earlier as Orchis latifolia auct. non Linn., D. hatagirea has traditionally been used in indigenous system of medicine in India as ‘Hatajari’ or ‘Salam Panja’. The plant has therapeutic, ornamental and ecological significance (Gupta et al., 1998; Vij et al., 1992; Kala, 2000a). Due to over extraction from nature for medicinal use, the species has become threatened and categorized as critically endangered species (Ved and Tandon, 1998; Kala, 2000b; Ved et al., 2003; Bhattarai et al., 2014). This contribution provides insight into the botanical background, distribution, medicinal importance, threat status, cultivation and commercial aspects, and strategies for its conservation and sustainable utilization.

Introduction

Picrorhiza kurroa Royle ex Benth is an important alpine medicinal plant of the Himalayan region. The root and rhizome of P. kurroa are source of the crude drug, which is characteristically bitter in taste and is linked to the medicinal properties. In Indian system of medicine, the species popularly known as Kutki, is an important constituent of several drugs items. This plant also finds a place in Chinese system of medicine where it is known as Hun-hung lien. Chemically, compounds of interest in Picrorhiza are iridoid glycosides: picroside-I and picroside-II. Material for crude drug has traditionally been extracted from the wild. Natural stands have sharply dwindled due to over extraction and habitat degradation. The species was listed as “endangered” in 1997 by International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN). Commercial cultivation is not popular, but is urgently recommended.

Introduction

Species of Polygonatum, traditional known for their therapeutic properties for treating different ailments,are fairly well represented in temperate Northern Hemisphere in Asia, America and Europe and find use. In India, P. cirrhifolium, and P. verticillatum are the two important constituting species of Ashtavarga, but have attained a threatened status due to overexploitation. Of the 60 odd known species of the genus, less than 10 have been explored phyto-chemically. Their status varies species wise, at regional and global level.

INTRODUCTION

The term ‘ginseng’ is applied to a range of plants from family Araliaceae involving genus Panax. Out of the many species available in nature, Himalayas are also home to a commercially lesser known variety called as Panax psuedoginseng Wall (Nayar and Shastry 1990). In the interior temperate areas of the eastern Himalayas, the species is distributed across Sikkim, Bhutan, Nepal, and extends into China. Keeping in view its high commercial international demand, CSIR-Institute of Himalayan Bioresource Technology (CSIR-IHBT) Palampur has recently taken an initiative to introduce and cultivate Chinese ginseng (Panax ginseng) in the Lahaul valley of Himachal Pradesh, in India. This chapter addresses the different biological, chemical, medicinal and cultivation aspects of both the indigenous Himalayan variety (P. psuedoginseng) and the introduced Chinese species (P. ginseng) in particular.

An overwhelming proportion of plant material used for compounding herbal medicines and nutraceuticals is currently collected from the wild. With traditional health care systems gaining increasing popularity, the enormous amount of plant material extracted from the limited plant populations available in natural stands is a cause of justifiable alarm. The unscrupulous plunder of plant populations growing in the wild is pushing increasing number of important species to the endangered category and many to the verge of extinction. Also, unethical practices like adulteration and storage of medicinal plants under unacceptable conditions are rampant. All this is happening, when the consumer is becoming increasingly quality conscious and is demanding traceability of source material used for formulations and adherence to good practices for the entire chain of manufacturing process for herbal drugs and plant-based nutraceuticals. Clearly, solution to this problem lies in replacing the ‘collection from the wild’ paradigm to ‘production by cultivation’. An essential prerequisite for meeting this objective is a well thought out research agenda which not only tackles productivity enhancement goals for the targeted plant species but also addresses the validity of the entrenched notion among healers who use the traditional medical systems, that only material collected from the wild produces the desired results. The reason advanced in support of this argument is that phytomedicines are derived from plant populations growing in the wild under organic conditions and under their natural rhizosphere and rhizoplane. The associated soil-microbial complexes, and a variety of endophytic microorganisms, may be the initiators or modifiers of the production and expression of medicinal properties.

Building and honing up skills for managing any business is an important endeavor. Regardless of whether one is running a small business or a large company individual with good management skills are always essential. The role and structure of the farm business in modern agriculture is changing.

12.1 Supply Chain Management

Supply chain management encompasses the planning and management of all activities involved in sourcing and procurement, conversion and all logistics management activities. Importantly, it also includes coordination and collaboration with channel partners, which can be suppliers, intermediaries, third party service providers, and customers. In essence, supply chain management integrates supply and demand management within and across companies.

11.1 Time Management

One of the greatest assets business can have is an employee who uses his or her time to its fullest potential. Time is something that we can lose and never get back. People are always wishing they had more hours available in the day. The solution to this common problem is easier than one might realize. With a few minor adjustments in how to utilize time, people can change how to manage time. Proper time management can change life on a fundamental basis for the better.

Time management is not an instinct and instead, must be learned. . Using time wisely allows a person to complete tasks in an allotted time period, take on additional work, or spend more time with family. There are many things in an office environment that prevent effective time use.

Interruptions are time-wasters, especially since items one may consider urgent are not necessarily important. There is no way to pre plan the time and duration of an interruption, which may cause a loss of train-of-thought, difficulty concentrating, or complete memory lapse. Although it is difficult to avoid interruptions, there are methods for limiting their duration and impact the schedule.

Time is not like other resources which can be stored and used in the future, Time is a very special resource that you cannot be stored or saved for later use. Everyone has the exact same amount of time each day. Time not well used cannot be retrieved. Most people, feel like they have too much to do and not enough time. They blame lack of time for their poor finances, stress, bad relationships, and for not exercising their body.

Wise time management can help people find the time for what one desire, and for what they need to do. People need time to get what they want in life. If they wait for extra time to appear, they might lose the game of life. Through right time management, they can “create” the time they need, and not just wait for it to come. By planning time wisely, they will have more time to do more things.