eChapters

 1. A mineral that forms an original component of rock is called

a. Primary         b. Secondary

c. Essential         d. Accessory

1. Peeling: It is one of the integral parts of a food processing, and most agri-cultural crops need to be peeled to remove at the initial stage of food processing Peeling removes inedible portion (peel, seeds, and stalk) of fruits and vegetables. However, the susceptibility to spoilage increases due to acceleration of physiological process and the exposure of the tissues to microorganisms. The shelf-life and quality of fresh-cu produces could be compromised with the peeling.
The goals of optimum peeling operation are i. Minimizing product losses, ii. Types of products e.g., potato products, iii. Minimizing heat ring formation e.g., apple, potato, iv. Minimizing energy and chemical usage, v. Minimizing the environmental pollution.
Peeling operation can be grouped under following categories: Manual peeling (knife or blade), Mechanical peeling (abrasive devices, devices with drums, rollers, knives or blades and milling cutters), Chemical peeling, Enzymatic peeling, and Thermal peeling (Flame or dry heat peeling, steam or wet heat peeling, thermal blast peeling, and vapour explosion or vacuum peeling.

I have known Dr R.S. Chauhan al through his professional carrier. I came in his contact when he was a student, a research worker, a professional colleague. He is very hard working, sincere and dedicated scientist and teacher. I observed his remarkable skills, unwavering dedication and strong commitment for upliftment of research and the profession. He is known as an excellent teacher. He devised simple understandable means for complex topics.
His work on Panchgavya has won lots of appreciation at all levels. In fact he is a person who proved scientifically the application of components of Panchgavya on control of some untreatable disease like cancer.
I have absolutely no hesitation in saying that he is the “Father of Cowpathy”. He proved the efficacy and application of products of cow origin with scientific validation.
To be true, even today whenever I have some query, I invariably consult him because I am of the opinion that he has a very strong basic background. May God always shower his blessings on him.

Abstract
Single-cell proteins (SCPs) have gained huge attention in the aquafeed industry as a suitable alternative to traditional protein sources, including fish meal and soy protein. SCPs obtained from the algae, bacteria, fungi, and yeast often contain high protein content and superior amino acid profiles. The presence of essential fatty acids and additional bioactive compounds further support their role as adequate replacements for the current protein sources. Among those, mycoproteins are currently a major area of interest due to their favourable nutritional profile, higher growth rates and efficient production process. These have the ability to use a variety of agricultural and industrial by-products as their feedstocks. PEKILO® protein is such a commercial mycoprotein obtained from carbohydrates containing lignocellulosic wastes from forestry by-products. It was produced from the fungal species Paecilomyces variotii from the substrates such as spent sulphite liquor and molasses through a continuous fermentation process. Pekilo protein consists of 60 to 70% crude protein content, essential amino acids, vitamins, minerals, β-glucans and nucleotides. Its high digestibility and amino acid content make it a suitable protein source for the aquafeed industry. Recent research studies suggest that pekilo protein has a high potential as a non-conventional protein source in commercial salmon and shrimp feeds. Being a sustainable alternative to fishmeal, pekilo protein can help reduce the future challenges of fish meal supply and long-term sustainability.
Keywords: Pekilo protein, Mycoprotein, Non-conventional ingredient and Single-cell protein.

OS COXAE

Ox: The os coxae or hip bone consists of 3 flat bones i.e ilium, ischium and pubis which fuse together to form the acetabulum.

Ilium: is largest of the 3 parts. It shows three surfaces, three borders and three angels. The lateral (gluteal) surface presents gluteal line parallel to cotyloid border. The medial surface consists of rough medial triangular part, the sacral surface for articulation with sacrum and a smooth quadrilateral part, iliac surface. The iliopectineal line separates these surfaces and bears psoas tubercle in its middle (Fig. 6.1).

Etiology

Pemphigus foliaceous is a bullous autoimmune skin disease of canines affect ing epidermis and hair follicles. The recorded targeted auto-antigen in canine pemphigus foliaceous is desmoglein 1 (Dsg 1). This auto-antibody binds to Dsg 1 which is a prominent component of desmosome in the superficial layer of epidermis and hair follicle. It may be due to loss of intercellular cohesion leading to acantholysis followed by formation of superficial vesicles and bul lae. The common sites for the development of pemphigus in dogs are dorsal lateral muzzle, temporal, planum nasale, pinnae, periorbital skin and paw pads.

Class: Pentastomida

General characters

1. Usually, they are considered as aberrant arthropods as some authors suggest it to be related to annelids.

2. They are elongated, tongue like and transversely striated or sometimes, deeply ringed giving beaded appearance especially at the anterior end.

3. Two pairs of strong hooked claws are present at anterior-ventral surface.

4. Eggs contain fully developed larvae when laid

Introduction
Integrating information technology (IT) into governance and development frameworks has revolutionized how governments engage with citizens, driving empowerment across multiple dimensions. People-centric IT solutions focus on bridging the digital divide, promoting inclusivity, enhancing accessibility, and enabling active participation in governance and economic activities. These solutions leverage mobile technology, artificial intelligence (AI), cloud computing, and blockchain to create inclusive, transparent, and user-friendly platforms, ensuring equitable access to opportunities and resources.
Bridging the Digital Divide: One of the primary challenges in empowering people through IT is addressing the digital divide the gap between individuals with access to digital technologies and those without. In many developing nations, including India, large sections of the population remain excluded from the benefits of digital transformation due to socioeconomic, geographic, or infrastructural constraints.

9.1. Introduction

Human dependence on natural processes for the goods and services provided by nature, especially food, fuel and fibre, has been a known fact. In recent times, the value of less tangible services, such as climate control, water f iltration, and soil fertility, as well as recreational and cultural services has been emphasized also. Ecosystem services underpin human existence, health, and prosperity. It has been beneficial to humans through the transformations of resources (or environmental assets, including land, water, vegetation, and the atmosphere) into a flow of essential goods and services like clean air, water, and food (Costanza et al., 1997). Ecosystem services are those functions of ecosystems- including agroecosystems that are useful to humans or supportive of human well-being (Kremen, 2005). Services provided by ecosystems receive little notice for their support to human civilization often leading to poor management of the ecosystems. Land use systems influence ecosystem functions, which determine the supply of ecosystem services. Land and water resources are under considerable pressure from the expansion of cultivated and residential lands. Diverse land use in agrarian landscapes not only fosters biodiversity, but also provides potential ecosystem services such as air cleaning by vegetation, natural water filtration by plant roots, natural pest suppression, soil conservation, nutrient retention, and crop pollination by insects, etc. Lowland floodplains or waterlogged land areas are generally more conscious of the benefits provided by ecosystem services. It is important to create awareness among the people on provisioning services provided by ecosystems, such as crops, biofuel, fresh water, natural medicine, wildlife, and several cultural services. Managing ecosystem services, which link human well-being to conservation outcomes, is essential for achieving the sustainable development goals (SDGs) of the United Nations (Zhang, 2017).

Pollu beetle: Longitarsus nigripennis:Chrysomelidae

This pest is monophagous to pepper and no alternate host has been reported so far.

Nature of Damage

Adult is a shining blue flea beetle with yellow head and thorax and has thick enlarged femur and tibia. The adult beetle is only the size of a pin head.  The infested berries dry up and turn dark in colour. Berries become hollow and crumble when pressed and such hollow berries are called “Pollu” meaning empty. The eggs are laid on the berries @ 1-2 eggs in each hole. Eggs hatch in 5-8 days. The grub period extends for 30-32 days. The emerging grubs feed on the berries of pepper and consume the internal contents.

‘Chili’ (European literature) word derived from ‘Chile’ which means any pepper in Mexico and Central America. Peppers are an important constituent of many foods adding flavor, colour, vit.C and pungency and therefore indispensable to the world food industries. China, Mexico, Japan, Turkey, Indonesia, Pakistan and India are major producers.
 
Origin:  The cultivated chilli is of South American origin. Authorities generally agreed that capsicum originated in the new world (America) tropics and sub tropics. Pepper pods are there from 2000 year old burials in Peru. Decandolle concluded no capsicum was indigenous to the old world (Europe), peppers unknown in Europe until 16th century. Chilli was introduced into Spain by Columbus on his return trip in 1493 and cultivation spread from Mediterranean region to England by 1548 and to central Europe by close of 16th century. Portuguese carried capsicum from Brazil to India prior to 1885 and cultivation was reported in china during late 1700’s.

All capsicum species have 2n = 24. Polyploids with 2n = 36, 48 and  aneuploid 2n = 25 reported

Pepsin Digestibility of Food
Principle

Solvent extracted samples are digested for 16 hour with warm acid solution of pepsin under constant agitation. Insoluble residue is centrifuged, dried and weighed and analysed for protein ; or filtered, washed and analysed for protein.

Apparatus
    1.    Centrifuge : Capable of at least 1750 rpm with conical bottom tubes of 150 ml capacity. If necessary, solution may be centrifuged in 50 ml tubes.
    2.    Agitator : or water bath with shaking device and having temperature controlling unit.
    3.    Glass fiber filter paper.

An amine reacts with a carboxylic acid to form an amide. Similarly, the amino group  on one amino acid molecule reacts with the carboxyl group of another amino acid  to form a compound called peptide. A peptide bond is an amide bond that forms when the –COO- group of one amino acid reacts with the -NH₃+ group of another amino acid. The resulting compounds are called peptides. Even after this there is a reactive amino group and a carboxyl group in the peptide. If these groups react further a poly peptide can form and later a polymer called protein can form.

Introduction

For the analysis of electrical power system, different values are required, thus, per unit system provides the value for voltage, current, power, impendence, and admittance. The Per Unit System also makes the calculation easier as all the values are taken in the same unit. The per-unit system is mainly used in the circuit where variation in voltage occurs. The per-unit value of any quantity is defined as the ratio of actual value in any unit to the base or reference value in the same unit. Any quantity is converted into per unit quantity by dividing the numeral value by the chosen base value of the same dimension. The per-unit value is dimensionless.

Basic Definitions

Percent means ‘hundred’ and the sign % is read as percentage and x % is read as x percent. In other words, a fraction with denominator 100 is called a percent. In other words, “Percent” can be understood as “per 100” or “out of 100”. Percentage in itself is a dimensionless number used to tell how many parts per hundred are being considered. It is often denoted using the percent sign, “%”. The reference point for calculating percentage is taken as 100.

For example, 20% means 20/100 (i.e. 20 parts from 100). This can also be written as 0.2.

Agricultural sector worldwide is faced with several serious challenges as follows the spiralling demand of food, declining agricultural productivity due to natural resources degradation and increasing competition in international markets. The new millennium throws up new challenges in the Indian agriculture sector that are different from those in the past. Continuous pressure of producing more food from the same land with shrinking natural resources and marketing the product is a tough task for farmers. Public agricultural extension system with a mandate and mission, beyond transfer of technology, is needed to develop the capacities of the farming community.

Introduction

Animal husbandry and poultry rearing, in addition to offering economic participation, play an important role in securing household food security. The core notion of food security argues that everyone should have physical and economic access to the basic nutrition they require. ‘Food security is a scenario that exists when all people have physical, social, and economic access to sufficient, secure, and nutritious food that fits their dietary needs and food preferences for an active and healthy life’, according to the FAO (2002). Consequently, two requirements must be met in order to ensure food security: the first is the availability of food, and the second is the ability to purchase it. There is a propensity to define food security at the national level without examining its condition at the grass roots level with major emphasis at the household or individual level. This is because, while national food security may appear to be adequate, disparities in food security may exist among regions, groups, households, and people.

Increased crop output can increase people’s calorific intake, but protein is also essential for health, and pulses and coarse grains are essential. According to the Directorate of Economics and Statistics, DAC & FW, total pulse output in the nation was roughly 25.42 million tonnes in 2017-18, and over 23.40 million tonnes in the following fiscal year (2018-19). This demonstrates the country’s falling pulse production pattern, diminishing the availability of vegetable protein to the public. A similar trend was observed in states like Assam, where the area under pulse production declined from 1,54,706 hectares in 2017-18 to 1,50,229 hectares in 2018-19, and further fell to 1,43,962 hectares in 2019-20. The provisional data further forecasted the area to fall even further to 1,42,303 hectares in 2020-21. (Statistical Handbook of Assam, 2020 and 2021)

7.1. Sustainability in Agriculture

Sustainability essentially means meeting the needs of present generation without compromising the ability of future generation to meet their own needs. The concept used by FAO to convey the meaning of sustainability necessarily rely on management and conservation of resource base in relation to orientation of technological and institutional changes to ensure satisfaction in meeting human needs. Sustainability normally covers the meaning of conservation of natural resources. The natural resources are land, water, forest and livestock. The maintenance of these resources suffers due to low or no maintenance because of absence of infrastructure and inadequate finance. Apart from these constraints, poor management ability is also responsible for degradation of natural resources. To equip the people, in general, poor managerial ability has to be upgraded through multidisciplinary program, appropriate technology and establishment of peoples’ organizations. To work on sustainability as defined for maintenance and conservation, the people in general ought to develop a positive perception to work before the program is initiated. The perception directs action of individual in a positive manner. Therefore, it is necessary to determine the perception of people about the concept of sustainability, particularly in the field of agriculture.

Introduction

Women are vital part of the Indian economy, constituting one-third of the national labour force and are considered to be the major contributor to the survival of the family. Despite progress in several indicators, gender analysis of most social and economic data demonstrate that women in India continue to be relatively disadvantaged in matters of survival, health, nutrition, literacy and social status. More than 90 percent of rural women in India are unskilled thus restricting them to low-paid occupations. Women generally have no control over land and other productive assets, which largely excludes them from access to institutional credit and renders them dependent on high-cost informal sources of credit to secure capital for consumption and for productive purpose.

Among 621.1 lakh population in Tamilnadu (according to 2001 census) 308.4 lakh are females. The people below poverty line in Tamilnadu are about 21.12 percent, out of this, women share equal percentage of poverty. In a patriarchal society, women have inadequate knowledge on various aspects and depend largely on the male siblings or husbands. They also do not have much access to credit or income as most of the expenditure is controlled by men. Even where they have some measure of control they spend most of their earnings on family needs. Estimates shows that more women and girls experience the vigour of poverty than men in poor holds because of inequalities in access to food, healthcare and education. (www.undp.org.in).

Introduction

India’s population is projected to be around 1,350 million by 2020 AD which requires food grain production of 343 million tonnes. Considering the current food grain production levels, India needs to raise food grain growth by not less than 4 percent. On the other hand the available per capita cultivable land has declined from 0.48 ha to 0.14 ha and by 2050 it may further decline to 0.07 ha i.e. for every 14 persons only one ha land will be available to produce all essential items like food, fiber, fuel, fodder, fruits etc. (Harshal et al., 2006). About 75 percent of 105 million farm families belong to small and marginal farmers with less than 2 ha and 40 percent of the rural population lives below poverty line. We often talk about self-sufficiency in food supply but the fact is that population living below poverty line does not have the purchasing power.