eChapters

Introduction

Commonly available food materials especially dairy products, cereals and fruits are perishable and require processing for long term storage. The methods of food storage has been known from the pre historic times and was mostly based on processing the food into a more stable form with a longer shelf life. Such processes increases the time range of food availability and in many cases improves the taste thereby, cumulatively improving the food value. One of documented method of food preservation is by fermentation and is age old. Other commonly used methods include drying, refrigeration, salting and fermentation (Luck 1985, Paulus, 1985, Christensen et al., 2003, Martindale and Schiebel, 2017).

Flavour and appeal of food has been considered as one of the important factors contributing to the demand of the food. Originally the flavours were largely plant derived, current industrial practices largely utilise synthesis by chemical reactions and subsequent extraction to achieve a uniform quality (Weckerle et al., 2006, Davidovich-Rikanati et al., 2008, Sethupathy et al., 2018). These chemicals referred to as “flavourings” are defined as compounds that enhance the taste, appeal and palatability of food. They are naturally derived or artificially synthesised compounds. Considering that many artificially synthesised chemical flavours might affect the health adversely. Industrial food research has now shifted their focus on flavourings that are naturally available (Cohen et al., 2018). Such naturally occurring flavourings are referred to as bio-flavours (de Billerbeck 2015). The ease of producing bio active compounds from microbial culture extracts has played significant role in industrial food biotechnology (Verachtert et al., 2005).

Mentoring represents a developmental relationship between a more experienced individual and a less experienced person, characterized by guidance, support, and knowledge transfer that facilitates personal and professional growth. The word “mentor” originates from Homer’s epic poem “The Odyssey,” where Mentor serves as a wise counselor and guide to Telemachus during Odysseus’s absence. This classical reference captures the essence of mentoring as a relationship built on wisdom sharing, guidance provision, and developmental support that extends beyond mere instruction or supervision.

Contemporary definitions of mentoring emphasize its multifaceted nature as both a relationship and a process that serves developmental functions for mentees while often providing reciprocal benefits for mentors. Kram’s seminal work defines mentoring as a relationship between a young adult and an older, more experienced adult that helps the younger individual navigate the adult world and the world of work. This definition highlights the developmental and navigational aspects of mentoring while recognizing the experience differential that typically characterizes these relationships

Ethnopharmacology and Traditional medines use natural resources as medicines. They have developed the knowledge of this through the generations of traditions and experiences. Therefore the protection of this knowledge and protection of natural resources both remain critical. Bioprospecting involves sustainable, ethical and legal processes to access natural resources and use them judicially so that the business needs do not pose any threat to nature and to people.

One important consideration is assuring the preservation of traditional knowledge, particularly oral knowledge, within communities, for the potential benefit of others. Developing mechanisms to document traditional knowledge, such as national inventories, can be beneficial in identifying cases where conservation or cultivation is needed, based on an understanding of existing natural resources used for medicinal purposes. Decisions about access and ownership of information can also be made (including those relating to intellectual property rights, where appropriate) once methods have been found to collect and preserve traditional knowledge. On the other hand, the livelihood of traditional healers may depend on maintaining the secrecy of their healing methods - one argument for consulting with traditional healers as part of the process of planning and executing the collection, storage and testing of traditional medicines.

Extending some form of intellectual property protection to traditional knowledge, of which traditional medical knowledge is a significant part, is being actively debated in WIPO and other international forums. Existing intellectual property regimes can offer protection for purified compounds (produced by scientists and companies) isolated from a natural medicine. But traditional medicines, whose method of action may not be well understood, and which often consist of mixtures of different active substances, may not meet criteria for patentability. The principal impetus for international debate is a desire to compensate the holders of traditional knowledge appropriately for the use of their knowledge by others, or to prevent so-called “biopiracy” where knowledge or genetic materials are used without the consent of the holder. China and Kenya are examples of countries that have modified their laws in an effort to accommodate traditional medicine. It is not intended that the Commission should enter into this debate, except in so far as aspects of it may be relevant to its terms of reference, in particular stimulating innovation in traditional medicine with the purpose of expanding access to affordable medicines.

Training represents a systematic process of developing knowledge, skills, abilities, and competencies that enable individuals to perform their current and future roles more effectively. It involves planned learning experiences designed to bring about relatively permanent changes in behavior, performance, and capabilities through the acquisition of new information, skills, and attitudes. The essence of training lies in its purposeful nature, distinguishing it from informal learning or casual instruction by its structured approach to achieving specific learning objectives within defined timeframes and contexts. The contemporary definition of training has evolved from narrow skill-based instruction to encompass broader developmental approaches that address cognitive, emotional, and behavioral dimensions of human performance. Modern training is understood as a strategic organizational investment that enhances individual capability while supporting broader business objectives such as productivity improvement, quality enhancement, innovation promotion, and competitive advantage development. This expanded conceptualization recognizes training as both a human resource development tool and a strategic business process that contributes directly to

ABSTRACT

Over the past four decades groundwater has become a topic of discussion and investigation and as a result the knowledge of understanding groundwater conditions has radically improved. For the past quarter century, remote sensing has played a vital role to target the groundwater resources for the essential survival of horticulture and agriculture crops in drought-prone areas. GIS technology has made a rapid stride for the past one decade to amalgamate the data generated from various space-born platforms and the ground based surveys to facilitate the generation and use of various thematic information for groundwater resources assessment. The present study aims for the demarcation of various groundwater prospective zones in the West Doon Valley and its environs, falling in the SOI toposheet 53 F/15. The role of various parameters namely, Geomorphology, Geology, Lineaments, Drainage, Land Use, Water table and Slope has been integrated for delineating groundwater prospective zones. IRS IC LISS-III geocoded satellite image on 1:50,000 scale was used. Index overlay model has been applied for GIS analysis. The resultant map indicates five prospective zones, such as poor, low, moderate, high and very high groundwater prospective zones in the study area.

The food plants of world are damaged by more than 10,000 species of insects, 30,000 species of weeds, 1,00,000 diseases (caused by fungi, bacteria, viruses and other microorganisms and 1000 species of nematodes (Hall, 1995). The global losses due to various categories of pests vary with the crop, geographic location and weather. Total yield losses from different pests to all the crops have been estimated to be US$ 500 billion worldwide (Oerke et al., 1994). In India, the current losses due to insect pests in principal field crops have been estimated to be Rs. 6, 89,400 million (Dhaliwal et al., 2004). In addition, there is loss of Rs. 60,000 million due to insect pests during storage. Thus, total losses to major crops and food grains in storage caused by insect pests are estimated to be Rs. 750 billion annually (Dhaliwal and Arora, 2006). Among regions, losses in Asia and Africa almost reaches 50 percent whereas in Europe (28.2%), North America (31.2%) and Oceania (36.2%) are below average. Losses due to animal pests in Asia (18.7%) are almost double those in developed countries and losses from weed competition in Africa and Asia are approximately double than those in Europe (Oerke et al., 1994). To combat such heavy losses mostly chemical pesticides are used by the farmers but indiscriminate use of pesticides has led to severe ecological consequences like destruction of natural enemy fauna, effect on non target organisms, residues in consumable products including packed pure and mineral water and ultimately resistance to the pesticides, to which we solely rely. Insecticides are always required to suppress rapidly expanding insect pest populations. Strategies should be employed to increase efficiency and accelerate insect mortality by combining microbials with sub lethal doses of chemical insecticides and botanicals. Biointensive pest management (BIPM) is the recent trend in Indian farming and attracting the farmers for higher income to their produce. This has resulted due to increased awareness among the end users and concerns about the deteriorating ecological situations among the eco-campaigners.

Microbial pesticides consist of disease causing microorganisms, which are disseminated in the pest populations in large quantities in a manner similar to application of chemical pesticides. It includes bacteria, viruses, fungi, nematodes and some protozoans. Pathogens may exert controlling effect by means of their invasive properties, toxins, enzymes and other substances (Lewis, 2006). The use of microbial insecticide has been proved to be a viable alternative to chemical insecticides, especially in management of forest insect pests. The combination of particular active ingredients and their ability of replication in host populations in the fields define the major differences between microbial insecticides and chemical insecticides. These differences have practical implications for their use in insect pest management programmes.

Introduction

The development of any region is reflected in its quantum of energy consumption. With a view to keeping the pace we have to grow our energy resources at a rate that commensurate to sustainable development. There is already shortage of electricity, reflected in power cuts notwithstanding enhancement of electricity production of several folds in the country. The problem is more severe in context with rural areas in India where some 70% of population live and have agriculture as the main occupation. Although statistically few thousand villages are yet to be electrified, the availability of regular supply in far off places has been a problem and the farmers are unable to derive benefits of electricity. The fast depleting kerosene is used for lighting and diesel oil for running agricultural machinery including pumps. In addition people burn firewood, agricultural waste and cow dung cake for cooking food causing irreparable damage to the ecosystem. According to Lester Brown there will be plenty of food to eat but no fuel to cook. The burning of cow dung deprives farmers the use of potential source of organic manure. Further, due to shortage of energy resources, farmers are unable to process the agricultural products to enable them to accrue more benefits. The situation is still worse in arid region where bio mass is scarce and there is no hydro electricity. In addition, farmers are unable to generate additional income due to lack of energy resources to run appropriate device in cottage industries. In this context, solar energy utilization has a tremendous potential for providing needful energy to the farmers for domestic, agricultural and allied applications leading to a sustainable development.

Bottom or demersal trawling continues to be one of the most important fishing methods of the world. In India more than 35,230 trawlers of various sizes ranging from 9 to 30 m L_OA with engine power ranging from 45 to 495 hp @ 2000 rpm are in operation. Trawl is a bag net towed through water to filter out fishes, the mouth of which is kept open horizontally by means of a beam or otter boards and vertically by means of floats and sinkers. Horizontal mouth opening is also effected by dragging the net from two boats known as bull trawling or pair trawling. The principle of trawling is the movement of the net under water filtering the water through the mesh in the netting, without either permitting the fish to escape or gilling them (Fig. 1). Trawl net is fabricated using polyethylene netting after cutting and shaping the panels as per the design

Introduction

Agricultural residues encompass the byproducts that arise from the cultivation and processing of unprocessed agricultural commodities, such as fruits, vegetables, meat, poultry, dairy products, and crops. These residues are the leftover outputs that do not function as main products and may contain substances that have potential benefits for human use. However, their economic value is lower than the cost incurred for their collection, transportation, and processing for beneficial purposes. The composition of agricultural wastes varies depending on the specific agricultural activities and systems utilized, and they can exist in various forms, including liquids, slurries, or solids. Agro waste, which is another term for agricultural waste, encompasses a range of materials such as animal waste (including manure and animal carcasses), waste from food processing (where only 20% of maize is preserved and the remaining 80% is discarded), crop waste (including corn stalks, sugarcane bagasse, and discarded or imperfect fruits and vegetables), as well as hazardous and toxic agricultural waste (such as pesticides, insecticides, and herbicides). Although there is a scarcity of estimates regarding agricultural waste generation, it is widely recognized that they make a significant contribution to the overall waste volume in developed countries. The proliferation of agricultural production has inevitably caused a surge in the volumes of livestock waste, agricultural crop residues, and by-products from agro-industries. If developing countries persist in intensifying their agricultural systems, a substantial increase in global agricultural waste is foreseen. It is estimated that about 998 million tonnes of agricultural waste is produced yearly (Agamuthu, 2009). In any agricultural setting, the accumulation of organic wastes can constitute a significant portion, reaching up to 80 percent, of the overall solid waste generated. Specifically, the production of manure can contribute up to 5.27 kg per day for every 1000 kg of live weight, considering the wet weight basis.

Introduction

The ill effects of chemicals used in agriculture have changed the mindset of consumers in different countries, who are now buying organic products with a high premium for health. Policymakers are also promoting organic agriculture for the restoration of soil health and the generation of the rural economy, apart from making efforts to create a better environment. The world principles of organic farming have emerged in the form of biological farming, ecological farming, permaculture, biodynamic agriculture, green farming, bio-intensive farming, zero-input agriculture, etc..

Organic agriculture is one of the broad spectrums of production methods that are supportive of the environment. Organic production systems are based on specific standards precisely formulated for food production and aim at achieving agroecosystems that are socially and ecologically sustainable. Organic farming practices help in increasing carbon sequestration, soil and water conservation, and minimizing risk in agriculture. The important aspects of organic farming with respect to water conservation are mentioned in this chapter.

The methodology has been carefully considered in order to comprehend the idea, procedures, and approaches used in the design of the study, information gathering, data analysis, and finding interpretation for the identification of relevant truths and the development of hypotheses. The methodology and a process employed in the study are covered in this chapter.

5.1 Locale of the Research

The rural areas of Darjeeling-Pulbazar CD block, Jorebunglow-SukhiaPokhri CD block in Darjeeling district in West Bengal was selected for the study. The area had been selected for the study because of the availability of appropriate respondents, people as well as the local language.

5.2 Pilot Study

Prior to beginning the actual research, a pilot study was carried out to better understand the regions, its inhabitants, institutions, and programmes activities associated to the migration process in the research area. During the pilot study period, the respondents’ situational and historical data were gathered.

Introduction 
Building on our extensive exploration of how individual weather parameters intricately influence every facet of crop life and the diverse methodologies employed to evaluate these responses, we now embark on a journey into the mathematical heart of crop science. This chapter, Elementary Crop Growth Models,” will introduce you to the foundational concepts and simpler mathematical frameworks used to quantify, simulate, and ultimately predict how crops grow under varying environmental conditions. In the upcoming sections, we’ll delve into the fundamental building blocks of crop modeling. You’ll discover how these elementary models simplify the complex biological processes occurring within a plant to create manageable, yet insightful, representations. Unlike highly detailed mechanistic models, which require vast amounts of data and computational power, elementary models focus on capturing the most essential relationships between environmental drivers (like solar radiation, temperature, and water) and key aspects of crop growth, such as biomass accumulation or phenological progression. These simpler models serve as a crucial stepping stone. They allow us to grasp core principles of crop-weather interaction in a quantifiable way, providing practical tools for initial assessments, quick predictions, and conceptual understanding, without getting lost in the overwhelming complexity of every single physiological pathway. By understanding these foundational models, you’ll gain a clearer perspective on how agricultural scientists begin to predict the future performance of our food crops, even as the climate around them continues to evolve

Synonymous  :  Pearl’s disease, scrofula

It is a chronic insidious contagious disease of man and animals caused by  tubercle bacilli characterized by development of tubercles in lung tissue, lymph nodes or other organs resulting in caseation and calcification. The tubercles are frequently located in lungs and lymph nodes. But they may be formed in the liver, spleen, intestine, peritoneum, meninges and long bones.

Soil pH

Danish scientist Sorensen (1909) first used the term pH. The H+ concentration is usually small and is expressed in terms of pH, defined as the logarithm of the reciprocal of the H+ concentration, in moles per litre. The pH scale ranges from 0 to 14, with 7 being neutral. Soil acidity is the concentration of H+ in the soil solution. This is active acidity. Besides, there is a potential acidity, that includes the H+ adsorbed on the colloidal fraction of soil. The pH scale is derived from the dissociation constant of water, Kw:

Chironji or Charoli (Buchanania lanzan Spreng Family: Anacardiaceae) is an excellent tree of agro forestry and social forestry. In wasteland development and Dryland horticulture, it assumes great significance due to multifarious uses and capacity to withstand adverse climatic conditions. At present, it is growing under forest condition as an under exploited fruit and gives monitory reward to tribal community of country and seems to be a boon for them. It is a valuable species found in dry deciduous forest throughout the country excluding eastern Himalayan forests (Singh, 1982). Flesh of ripe fruit is very palatable and is largely eaten raw or roasted and oily kernels are the most important part and are used in preparation of sweet meats and puddings (Singh, 1982). Mesocarp of fruit is edible and cherished by children (Munde et al, 2003). Kernel is highly nutritious and rich in protein (18.00 %) and yields sweet oil, which can be used to substitute olive and almond oil. Kernel contains 33.50 % oil, 1.90 % of which is unsaponifiable. Saponifiable part contained 20.00 % of linoleic acid. Chironji oil is non-repellant and non-toxic and is suitable for human consumption (Banerjee and Jain, 1988). Hemawathy and Prabhakar (1988) reported that total kernel lipid extracted from chironji was 65.60 % of dry kernel and consisted of 90.40 % neutral lipids, 3.4 % glycolipids and 6.2 % phospholipids. Kernel can be used for preparation of sweets. It provides quality timber wood for various uses.

Invertebrate Development

The early stages of embryonic development determine the pattern of structures in the adult organism

The study of Drosophila mutants with disrupted development patterns has identified genes that control development

The generation of a body pattern depends on the positional information that each cell receives during development

The gene products of maternal effect genes are deposited asymmetrically into the oocyte and establish the anteroposterior and dorsoventral axes at a very early stage of development

Gap, pair-rule, and segment-polarity genes act sequentially to divide the Drosophila embryo into segments

The expression of homeotic genes controls the phenotypic characteristics of segments

The developmental fate of each cell in the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans is known

Heterochronic mutations disrupt the timing of developmental changes in C. elegans

21.1 Determination of Total Nitrogen in Soil (Modified Kjeldahl Method)

Nitrogen mostly present in soil in organic form. Relatively small amount of nitrogen usually occurs in ammonium and nitrate form, the available form. The Kjeldahl method of total N determination includes both organic and ammonium forms and with modification nitrate form of N can also be included.

Principle

When soil is digested with concentrated sulphuric acid organic nitrogen is converted to ammonium sulphate. To speed up the reaction a digestion mixture composed of sodium (or potassium) sulphate (to raise the boiling point of H₂SO₄) and cupric sulphate (CuSO₄) - selenium powder (catalyst) is used.

Abstract
The United Nations predicts that by 2050, the global population will reach 9.6 billion, leading to urgent challenges such as ensuring food security and reducing greenhouse gas emissions. Climate change, coupled with biotic and abiotic pressures, will significantly impact global food production. Despite advances in agriculture, malnutrition remains a widespread issue, affecting millions, especially in developing countries. Protein-energy malnutrition, which affects over 170 million children and women, poses a significant threat to national economic development, increasing healthcare costs and reducing productivity. One key solution to combating malnutrition lies in promoting legumes (pulses), which are nutrient-dense, protein-rich, and vital for both human and animal consumption. Pulses have been a staple in diets
for centuries, providing essential nutrients like protein, fiber, vitamins, and minerals. They are not only beneficial for human health, reducing the risk of heart disease, diabetes, and cancer, but they also contribute to sustainable agriculture. Legumes can fix atmospheric nitrogen, reducing the need for synthetic fertilizers, improving soil health, and increasing agricultural productivity. However, despite their benefits, pulse production lags behind other staple crops like cereals. With proper management, legumes could play a vital role in alleviating global hunger, particularly in developing countries. Increased awareness and efforts to incorporate legumes into farming systems and daily diets could help meet the growing global demand for nutritious, sustainable food.
Keywords: Climate change, Food security, Global hunger, Legumes, Proteinenergy malnutrition, Sustainable agriculture

Introduction

Poultry rearing in North East is very popular as backyard venture and is an inseparable part of poor tribal people of this region.  Majority of birds reared in backyard yard system are indigenous nondescript in which growth and production is very low (60-70 eggs per bird per annum; 2.5 kg. and 1.5 kg. body weight per bird in males and females, respectively). Due to this reason, the per capita availability of egg and meat is too low as compared to recommended allowance, particularly in rural areas. Moreover, the agriculture of N.E. region is characterized by monocropping system. The system of cropping is not suitable for providing round the year farm income. Therefore, most of farmers of this region rearing pig, goat and poultry in the back yard of their house to support their livelihood throughout the year. The N.E. region is most suitable for rural poultry production having plenty of natural foods i.e. good greenery through out the year, insects and other food resources.  Rural poultry production also has an appreciable advantage of being easy to raise, low input and higher reproduction. Rural poultry farming utilizing surplus coarse grains, kitchen waste and greenery and converting them into protein rich human food and valuable manure.  The manure obtained from poultry having more essential nutrients Nitrogen (three times the cattle manure), Phosphorus, Potash, Magnesium, Sodium and Calcium plus trace minerals, which are very essential for soil fertility and texture.

Entrepreneurship means all the activities that a person has to do to start and run businesses in line with social, political and economic changes. Businesses include activities related to consumer likes and dislikes, feelings and behaviors, likes and dislikes and the introduction of business plans to meet all of consumer expectations. Entrepreneurship is seen as a ‘new product’ that will enable entrepreneurs to develop a new type of business organization and new business activities that address the changing needs of the community.