eChapters

Abstract: Zantedeschia, commonly known as calla lily, is one of the popular ornamental plant in the world. Zantedeschia are commonly associated with the New Zealand, even though they are native to South Africa. The vegetatively propagated crop is currently the most important rhizomatous geophyte in the world. Most cultivars are grown for cut flowers, variegated or spotted foliage for floral arrangements, flowering potted plants and landscaping. Continued breeding and improvement of Zantedeschia focused on disease resistance, improved floral longevity, novel spathe colour, better bloom quality, longer stems, more flowers/ rhizome and determinate growth habit. Intersectional/interspecific hybridization is hampered by post fertilization barriers, hybrid breakdown, albino hybrid embryo and F₁ sterility. Crossing barriers have been overcome with the use of in vitro embryo rescue. Haploidization and molecular techniques are being used to create homozygous plant and marker assisted selection, respectively.

Corynebacterium diptheriae was first observed by Klebs in 1883 and was described in details by Loeffler in 1884. So it is also known as ‘Klebs- Loeffler bacillus’. In 1888, Nocard isolated a similar type of bacteria from cases of bovine farcy. In 1894, Preisz described it completely and revealed its similarities with the diphtheria bacilli. Later it was named as Corynebacterium pseudotuberculosis (Preisz-Nocard bacillus). Bollinger (1890) first reported C. renale from the cases of pyelonephritis in cows.

The genus Trueperella was proposed by Yassin and others (2011) to describe T. pyogenes previously known as Arcanobacterium pyogenes or Actinomyces pyogenes or Corynebacterium pyogenes. The genus Arcanobacterium was first described (Collins and others, 1982) to include the bacteria originally isolated as Corynebacterium haemolyticum from the wounds of American soldiers. On the basis of 16S rRNA comparisons and menaquinone and phospholipid compositions it is proposed that the species Arcanobacterium pyogenes should be reclassified as members of the new genus Trueperella.

The genus Rhodococcus was first introduced by Zopf (1891) as a soil bacterium used in horticulture. Magnusson (1923) described C. equi (Rhodococcus equi) from suppurative pneumonia of a foal.

Introduction
A biogas plant is an engineered system designed to generate biogas through the anaerobic digestion of organic materials rich in cellulose, such as cow dung, agricultural residues, poultry waste, and other biodegradable biomass. In the absence of oxygen, microorganisms decompose these materials, producing a mixture of methane (CH4), carbon dioxide (CO2), and traces of hydrogen sulfide (H2S). This biogas can be utilized as a renewable energy source for cooking, heating, and power generation.
In India, cow dung has traditionally served as the primary substrate, and such systems were popularly known as Gobar Gas Plants. The early designs were promoted by the Khadi and Village Industries Commission (KVIC)
Components of a Biogas Plants
A typical biogas plant consists of the following major components:
• Foundation: Provides structural support to the digester and gas holder.
• Digester (Fermentation Tank): The main chamber where anaerobic digestion occurs.
• Gas Holder (Masonry Dome or Drum): Collects and stores the biogas produced.
• Mixing Tank: Used to prepare the slurry by mixing feedstock with water (commonly 1:1 ratio).
• Inlet Chamber/Pipe: Feeds the prepared slurry into the digester

Soil is inhabited by incredibly diverse living microorganisms that are significant to plant growth and development. Soil microorganisms produce a variety of metabolites, probably several thousands, which influence the plant growth either positively or negatively. Therefore, in such a complex situation, identification of any one metabolite or a compound as active phytohormone or phytotoxin is really an uphill task. Appropriate extraction procedure, knowledge about the proper site for its action, appropriate conducive physiological environment and the effective intensity or concentration is of prime importance. Compounds, in general, are inhibitory to growth at higher concentrations but usually stimulatory at lower concentrations. All growth regulators, irrespective of their provenance or structure, may be divided into two groups.

The orchids are commercially important group of flowering plants and their flowers are affluent in uniqueness in their shape, size and colour, exquisitely attractive, remain fresh condition for long period of time in comparison to other flowers. Orchidaceae is the second largest family among floriculture; about 25000 to 35000 species of orchids have been reported over the world (Rampal and Nagrare, 2006). India accounts for nearly 7 per cent of world’s orchids genetic diversity contributed 1300 species under 184 genera (Arora, 1983; Rampal and Nagrare, 2006) and 1150 species belonging to 164 genera (Satish Kumar, 1994) of which about 800 species are found in the North Eastern region of the country (Nagaraju et al., 2006) and many more are discovered year after year because of the prevailing congenial climatic conditions, diverse terrain and altitudinal variations, which provide suitable habitat for orchids.

ABSTRACT

Dairy Development plays a vital role in bringing out significant changes in socio-economic structure of rural economy. The main objectives of Dairy Developments in India is to increase production and availability of milk through integrated policy of cattle cum Dairy Development, eliminating the middlemen, through formation of co-operatives and self supporting dairy enterprise. The advent of Geographical Information System (GIS) has added new vistas in the field of Dairy Farm and Management. It also helps in integrating the whole Dairy Farm in a more precise way to get correct information about the various factors related with the whole dairy farm.

Introduction

The farm of Sarasa Green Projects around Chapabandi, Bansgora and Hetedoba Mouzas near Durgapur in Burdwan District of West-Bengal. Dairy Development plays a vital roll in brining about significant changes in socio-economic structure of rural economy. The main objectives of Dairy development in West-Bengal is to increase production and availability of milk through integrated policy of cattle cum Dairy Development eliminating the middlemen through formation of co-operatives and self supporting dairy enterprise. (Fig.1)

Case Study    :    Indian Ocean Tsunami - 2004

Abstract

Rhizobia are soil bacteria that fix atmospheric dinitrogen after establishing symbiotic relationship inside the root nodules of legumes (Fabaceae). Plant Growth Promoting Rhizobacteria are the group of bacteria which thrive in the rhizosphere region and enhance the plant growth through direct & indirect mechanisms. Pulses are being inoculated with specific rhizobial strains to have better nodulation in India. The native rhizobial strains from the root nodules of legumes from different agroclimatic zones of Odisha was isolated, characterised and screened for PGP activities. Out of all eleven isolates showed similar characteristics with the family Rhizobiacae. Among them six isolates contained nif-gene and PGPR activity (B2, B4, B5, B6, B7 and B8) were applied to seeds, that helped in faster germination and better elongation of root and shoot. The observations were statistically significant.

Introduction

Mites and ticks belong to acarology an offshoot of animal science Zoology a common man mites and insects look alike but former can be easily differentiated by absence wings and antennae and presence of four pairs of legs in most farms. Parasitic mites and ticks live on domestic animals, pets and poultry (Baker and Pritchard, 1960; Baker and Tuttle, 1994; Krantz and Walter, 2009). They are responsible for inducing paralysis, host intoxication, irritation carriers of pathogens and other health disorders to them. The severe bites of ticks cause tick toxicosis producing deep wounds, which bleed and are open to secondary infection. Parasitic mites are among the serious pests of the bees the world over. At times they cause mass mortality of brood and put a heavy loss to apiculture industry. Both solitary and social bees that are important pollinators are parasitized by Messostigmatid mites reducing their life span and foraging efficiency. They parasitize silkworm larvae, pupae and adults. By their toxication silkworms die in few hours. Man himself is not free from the attack of mites. Human itch mite, scabies mite and pyroglyphid mites causing allergic asthma are notorious examples of parasitic mites on man. Dancing on the head of a pin’ is definitely impossible for most animals. However, a large number of mites, the smallest Arachnida could do it. The size of these creatures ranges from a fraction of a millimetre, invisible to the naked eye, to about one centimetre in ticks.

Introduction

The world of living organisms essentially consists of the kingdoms of plants and animals. Myriads of organisms representing these two, interact among them, ranging from symbiosis and mutualism to competition and predator-prey interactions. The last mentioned process is one the important components of ecological dynamics, that determine the balance of nature or equilibrium among the biota. To this category belong the predators, parasites (parasitoids), pathogens, and so on, all of which live at the cost of another organism, without affording any benefit to the ‘victim’, hence the victim is termed the ‘prey’. In an agroecosystem, when an organism, explodes into an unusually high number, devouring cultivated plants it often becomes a ‘pest’ from a man’s point of view. Sometimes the pest can be a human nuisance too. It is here, that the role of predators and parasitoids become relevant as biological agents against the pests.
 
A lion, which preys on herb-feeding antelopes, is also a predator. But, its roles become restricted to maintaining the balance of the antelope population. Left undeterred, antelopes can explode to levels that can threaten grasslands. Here lions play a very crucial role in maintaining (through hunting antelopes) the equilibrium of the grasslands, just sufficient for these plants to surge with every rain. Otherwise, the grasslands potentially may get denuded by the antelopes, or conversely it may override other ecosystems. This is part of the ‘food web’ and is found in every ecosystems; desert, aquatic, mountains, forests, agro-ecosystems, etc.

Introduction

Livestock sector plays an important role in the rural economy at national level and this sector is emerging as a driving force in agriculture by contributing towards the income and employment of rural households. Livestock contributed 16% to the income of small farm households that indicates importance of livestock sector as a whole. In 2010-11, livestock generated outputs worth Rs 2075 billion (at 2004-05 prices). Agriculture sector grew at low rate of 4.7% during 2013-14 and contributed 13.9% to National GDP (Economic Survey 2013-14). The livestock sector contributed over 4.1 per cent of the total GDP in 2012-13, that nearly accounts for 29.5% of the agricultural GDP (Economic Survey 2013-14) indicating a significant contribution of the livestock. Sheep and goats are an important livestock species for a large number of rural poor, especially socially backward, marginal and landless labourers in India. Sheep are mostly reared for wool and meat purpose. India ranks third in sheep population and account for nearly 6% of world sheep population, currently India has 65.06 million sheep as per Livestock census 2012.

Trends in aquaculture and fisheries

Global fisheries have made rapid strides in recent years by establishing its strong hold over increasing food supply, generating job opportunities, raising nutritional level and earning foreign exchanges. These benefits become more important when placed in the context of current challenges in food production, nutritional security, social transitions and growing climate uncertainties. Fish and fishery products are the most traded food commodities in the world accounting for 1% of world merchandise trade in value terms representing more than 9% of total agricultural exports all over world (FAO, 2014). About 38% of the global fish production enters international trade in various forms and shapes, generating an export earning of nearly US$148.1billion with a record import at US$140.6 billion during 2014. Mostly the developing countries that account for over 60% of global fish catch, which has continued to expand at an average annual rate of 8.8% (FAO, 2009 & 2012) and play a major role in the global trade of fish and fish products contributing around 50% of fishery exports in value terms and more than 60% in quantity terms supplied by them (World Bank, 2011). At the same time, demand for fish products are likely to rise as a result of rising populations that are expected to reach 9.3 billion by 2050. Developing countries have a positive trade balance due to their increasing involvement in global fisheries trade. Developing country like India may have higher proportion of population growth but its impressive economic growth over the past two decades has resulted in steady increase in per capita income in real terms that in turn increases the purchasing power of people resulting in increasing demand for food to feed & ensure nutritional security of the population. As a result of which it brought inconsistency in fish consumption pattern across the coastal, marine and hill region.

8.1 Introduction

Biogas is produced by the anaerobic digestion of biodegradable materials with the help of microorganisms. Biogas is also considered as renewable energy source because of is environment friendly nature. Conversion of cattle dung, kitchen wastes and agricultural wastes into biogas have the potential to minimize the burden on the fossil fuel and reduce the environmental pollution. Majority of developing countries specially their rural and suburban areas faces lack of access to the electricity and cooking gas. Biogas technology is emerging as a sustainable technology for waste treatment which could help to tackle the waste disposal issue in developing countries. 

HACCP: The Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Points (HACCP) is a scientific, rational and systematic approach to identify, assess and control hazards during production, processing, manufacturing and use of food. It ensures safety of the food. HACCP presents a good opportunity for the food industry for upgrading quality and bringing uniformity and consistency in their supplies to international market. or It is a systematic preventive approach to food safety that addresses physical, chemical and biological hazards as a mean of prevention rather than finished product inspection. It involves identification, evaluation and control of hazards which are significant for food safety.

HACCP plan: A document prepared in accordance with the principles of HACCP to ensure control of hazards which are significant for food safety throughout the food chain under consideration.

Haemagglutinins: A group of proteins of plants that are not antibodies and do not originate in an immune system but bind specifically to carbohydrate containing receptors on cell surfaces (red blood cells). It is also known as Phytoagglutins / lectins.

1. Forest soils are_____________ in nature. (Acidic)
2. The term soil originated from latin word ‘Solum’ which means_____________. (Floor)
3. Most commonly used sources of N fertilizer in forestry is_____________. (NH₄)₂SO₄
4. _____________ is considered as the father of pedology. (V. V. Dokuchaev)
5. _____________ is considered as father of soil testing. (Troug)
6. Land capability class was given by_____________ and_____________. (Klingebiel and Montgomery)
7. The law of the minimum was given by_____________ in 1862. (Liebig)
8. Law of restriction was proposed by_____________. (Liebig)
9. The soil structural classification followed in India is according to_____________. (USDA)

Plant Quarantine
The term ‘Quarantine’ is derived from the Latin word quarantum, meaning 40. It refers to the 40 days period of detention of ships from countries with bubonic plague and cholera in the Middle Ages. The first such quarantine was imposed in Venice in 1374.Present quarantine laws now include plants. Plant quarantine , restrict entry of plants, plant products, soil, cultures of living organisms, packing materials, and commodities, as well as their containers and means of conveyance to protect agriculture and the environment from avoidable damage by hazardous organisms.They exclude dangerous organisms while permitting plants and plant products to enter. The term exclusion convey this objective more clearly than plant quarantine. Exclusion relates to keeping organisms out; plant quarantine relates to keeping plants out.
In strict sense ‘Plant Quarantine’ refers to the holding of plants in isolation until they are believed to be healthy. Now, broader meaning of the plant quarantine covers all aspects of the regulation of the movement of living plants, living plant parts/plant products between politically defined territories or ecologically distinct parts of them. Intermediate quarantine and post entry quarantine are used respectively to denote the detention of plants in isolationfor inspection during or after arrival at their final destination.

Introduction
Pesticides play a crucial role in agriculture. During the period of the Green Revolution, the use of pesticides increased dramatically (Matson et al., 1997). According to the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), pesticides can be defined as compounds that are used for the destruction, repulsion, or prevention of organisms that can be harmful to cultured crops (pests) as well as affect the regulation of plant growth. They are categorized based on several factors, such as their chemical composition (organophosphates, pyrethroids, neonicotinoids, etc.), based on the types of pests they eradicate (herbicides, insecticides, fungicides, etc.), and application methods. Although each pesticide has a distinct purpose, they all have comparable advantages. Some of the primary benefits of pesticide usage are the prevention of disease andan increase in yield, whereas secondary benefits include economic efficiency, an increase in food quality, facilitation of sustainable agriculture, improving public health, etc. However, the extensive use of pesticides has its consequences. These pesticides are meant to control or eliminate pests, but their toxicity could end up in unexpected areas. Its utilization poses significant harm to the environment, particularly to aquatic ecosystems. While they are essential in agriculture, their unregulated application leads to environmental degradation. The level of toxicity is influenced by factors such as pesticide concentration, mode of action, chemical composition, and persistence in the environment. Pesticides can cause both acute as well as chronic health effects. Through runoff or leaching, they indirectly enter water bodies, harming aquatic flora and fauna. A 2001 study revealed that over 90 percent of fish and water samples collected from various streams contained traces of one or more pesticides (Kole et al., 2001).

Introduction
Sexual development in animals is considered one of the most complex research areas. This complexity arises from the underlying genetic structures that determine gender. Additionally, sexual development is viewed as one of the most intricate traits that have evolved, making it essential to studying evolution and population genetics (Schartl et al., 2018). According to evolution, fish have a link between invertebrates and higher-stacked vertebrates. According to Smith & Wootton, (2016), Kang et al. (2017), nearly all known mechanisms of sex determination observed in vertebrates have been identified in fish. As a result, finding the fish sex determination genes and their role in fish biology has excellent significance for the purely biological science of sex determination in animals. The energy from food is consumed into growth before fish become sexually mature. Since there is a range of ages for sexual maturity among different fish species, this explains the bilateral sexual growth differences in the species. The common carp (Cyprinus carpio) and the half-smooth tongue sole (Cynoglossus semilaevis) are two species that show a pattern in which females mature later than males, leading to larger females.
Sex-determining genes and their action mechanisms are crucial for guiding sex control breeding strategies in animals like the Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) and yellow catfish (Pelteobagrus fulvidraco), where males are categorized as more advanced than females Shao and Chen 2012; Chen et al., 2013; Long et al.., 2015; Mei and Gui. 2020). However, over ten years ago, the most evolved animals were the primary research subjects on the genes that determine sex and the mechanisms by which they work. According to Sinclair et al., SRY, also known as Sinclair, is the first human sex-determining gene found on the Y chromosome. in mice) and subsequently turned out to be a gene that determines maleness.

Cellulosic ethanol refers to the production of ethanol, an alcohol fuel, from cellulose found in plant fibers rather than from seeds or fruits. This biofuel can be derived from various sources such as grasses, wood, and other plants. The fibrous components of these plants are mostly from crop residues and other sources indigestible for animals, except for ruminants like cows and sheep, as well as hindgut fermenters like horses, rabbits, and rhinos. The interest in cellulosic ethanol stems from its potential economic value. Plant growth and cellulose formation serve as a mechanism to capture and store solar energy in a chemically stable manner, facilitating easy transport and storage of the resulting supplies. Moreover, the ability of grasses and trees to grow in temperate regions makes cellulosic ethanol commercially viable and offers a potential solution from non-food sources other than grain and tuber starch. This cellulosic ethanol development in the biofuel industry presents an opportunity to derive carbonaceous liquid fuels and petrochemicals, which are vital for our current standard of living, in a balanced and renewable manner by recycling carbon from the surface and atmosphere through any kind of plant orgin or any plant or tree species, Additionally, commercially viable cellulosic ethanol could mitigate the issue associated with conventional biofuels based on grains, which compete with food production and may lead to increased food prices. However, the production of cellulosic ethanol is currently economically feasible and has been implemented on a large scale in India. Several 2G ethanol plants are being developed by companies like Indian Oil Corporation Limited (IOCL), Bharat Petroleum Corporation Limited (BPCL) and Hindustan Petroleum Corporation Limited (HPCL). Different types of biomass contain varying amounts of sugars, and the complexity of the biomass is determined by the structural and carbohydrate components. Plant biomass mainly consists of lignin (13.6-28.1%), cellulose (40.6-51.2%) and hemicellulose (28.5-37.2%), which serve as the raw materials for fuel production. The conversion of biomass into sugars is a crucial step in biofuel production. Therefore, selecting an appropriate pretreatment process based on the biomass type is essential to achieve optimal sugar yield with minimal energy input.