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Sweet potato, Ipomoea batatas (Linn.) originated in northwestern South America around 8000 - 6000 BC. The plant is a dicotyledonous, herbaceous, trailing vine which is the only economically important member of the family Convolvulaceae. The plant is generally characterised by starchy, succulent and tuberous storage roots; alternating palmately lobed leaves and medium sized sympetalous flowers which grow individually and vary in colour from white to varying degrees of purple (Austin et al., 1991).

Sweet potato, Ipomoea batatas (Linn.) originated in northwestern South America around 8000 - 6000 BC. The plant is a dicotyledonous, herbaceous, trailing vine which is the only economically important member of the family Convolvulaceae. The plant is generally characterised by starchy, succulent and tuberous storage roots; alternating palmately lobed leaves and medium sized sympetalous flowers which grow individually and vary in colour from white to varying degrees of purple (Austin et al., 1991). It is a perennial plant but is grown as an annual by vegetative propagation usually through vine cuttings and sometimes using either storage roots. Its growth habit is predominantly prostrate with a vine system that rapidly expands horizontally on the ground. The types of growth habit of sweet potatoes are erect, semi-erect, spreading and very spreading.

Abstract

Tea, Camellia sinensis (L.) O. Kuntze, is a perennial crop and grown as a monoculture on large contiguous areas in India. Being a plantation crop, tea provides a relatively stable microclimate and food supply for several notorious pests such as insects, mites, nematodes which cause substantial loss of foliage. However, region-wide variation in faunal diversity exists as a result of autochthonous and heterochthonous recruitment and the influence of climate, altitude and age of the plantation. This publication provides the details on pest information (identification, crop damage, alternate hosts, pest life cycle) and their possible management strategies. On account of complex pest situations, total avoidance of pesticides in tea is not possible; although due to the sensitive nature of the crop pesticide use must be minimal. A tentative IPM strategy for tea cultivation in India has been proposed in this paper which may ensure low – cost, eco-compatible, pest management package with minimal residue problems.

Resource management has become a formidable task with loss of cultivable land to urbanization. Coercion to increase production has resulted in adoption of intense farming. This, however, has resulted in significant increase in the pest problem. Despite ten-fold increase in insecticide use during the last 80 years, losses inflicted by pests have nearly doubled. Estimates of yield losses caused by various pests attack range from 10-35% in various crops during different seasons which account for about 2000 crore revenue loss to the horticulture industry and is further projected at 5000 crore or more in future due to changing climate and intense farming (Reddy, 2010 and Rather, et al, 2013).

Tomato, Lycopersicon esculentum Mill. is an important vegetable cultivated throughout the world; both outdoors and under protected structures for fresh market consumption and processing. In India this nutritive rich vegetable is grown over an area of 0.60 m ha with an estimated production of 11.9 mt. Productivity of tomato in India is lower (18.6 t/ha) than the world productivity (27 t/ha) (Anonymous 2009). Tomato is grown in a wide range of climatic conditions across states of Andhra Pradesh, Orissa, Karnataka, Maharashtra, West Bengal, Bihar, Gujarat, Uttar Pradesh and Chhattisgarh.

Tomato, Lycopersicon esculentum Mill. is an important vegetable cultivated throughout the world; both outdoors and under protected structures for fresh market consumption and processing. In India this nutritive rich vegetable is grown over an area of 0.60 m ha with an estimated production of 11.9 mt. Productivity of tomato in India is lower (18.6 t/ha) than the world productivity (27 t/ha) (Anonymous 2009). Tomato is grown in a wide range of climatic conditions across states of Andhra Pradesh, Orissa, Karnataka, Maharashtra, West Bengal, Bihar, Gujarat, Uttar Pradesh and Chhattisgarh. Tomato crop is highly sensitive to environmental stress caused by high temperature and low soil moisture. In fact, temperature is rising in the tomato growing locations and can cause reduced fruit set and lower the quality of fruits.

Fruit borer: Helicoverpa armigera, Noctuidae, Lepidoptera
Biology: The adult females are light pale brownish-yellow stout moths while the male moths are pale greenish with V-shaped speck. The eggs are creamy white and sculptured type. They are laid singly. The larva shows colour variation from greenish to brown. It has dark brown grey lines on the body with lateral white lines and also has a dark band. Pupation occurs in soil, leaf, fruit, and crop debris.
Nature of damage and symptoms
• The young larvae feed on tender foliage
• Mature larvae bore into fruit through circular holes
• Larva thrust only a part of its body into fruit and eat the inner content

Turfgrass refers to a group of grass species cultivated to form a dense, uniform ground cover, primarily used in lawns, golf courses, sports fields, parks, and landscape areas. Turfgrass serves both aesthetic and functional purposes, including erosion control, temperature regulation, and dust suppression. Turfgrass ecosystems provide a favorable habitat for various insect pests and mites that affect roots, stems, and leaves, compromising turf quality, appearance, and playability.
Distribution: Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Maharashtra, Gujarat, Punjab, Uttar Pradesh, Odisha, and other regions, Mythimna separata (oriental armyworm), is more prevalent in the northern and eastern states.
Biology: Female moths lay eggs in clusters, often between leaf sheaths and blades, especially on dry grass. The eggs are initially pale yellow and darken before hatching. The larvae, also known as armyworms, go through several instars, feeding on grass blades.

2.1. Causes of pest outbreak

Activity of human beings which upsets biotic balance of ecosystem is prime cause for pest outbreak.

Companion animals are all those species of animals which are kept by man for companionship and which are often referred to as pets. It is quite common to see community dogs or cats living in residential colonies. This is because due to very fast urbanization all the open spaces are getting used up for construction of residential complexes, and the animals like dogs and cats living on these open areas are getting displaced. The residents that occupy these residential buildings find these animals to be a nuisance and want them to evicted.

Pet and companion animal can be discussed under street dog/stray dogs and owner dogs.

Dog Feeding

In Asia, dogs are the main pet animal kept both by urban and rural families. They are very versatile and adopt to common food habbits of their masters. Most often, they are fed on the home cooked foods – bread, rice, vegetables, pulses, milk and non – vegetarian meals. Many processed pet foods are also available in the market in the form of “Dry biscuits” or in “Canned form”, which provide all the requirements for Energy, Protein, Vitamins, Minerals and some moisture. Like any other farm animal, dogs also require these nutrients for their maintenance and productive purposes like – Growth, Lactation, Gestation, draft [sledge – cart on the ice] etcetra. Dogs and humans have been companions from time immemorial and the first readymade dog food was marketed under the name - DOG CHOW CHEKER in the year 1926. Since then such dog – foods have gained popularity. Most of the dog foods are manufactured abroad and marketed in India by Multi – National Companies (MNCs). Following are the guide – lines for feeding :

1. Energysources: Cereal grains - Jowar, Bajra, Oat, Maize, Sorghum.Average requirement of energy 3000 k.cal / kg of feed.

2. Protein sources: Vegetative origin : verypoor in Essential Amino acids. e.g. Soybean, grams, peas [green proteins], beans, other legumes.

3. Fat: 10 % (oil seeds are good sources Protein as well as Fats).

4. Non – starch fibrous feeds (5 %): To tone – up Alimentary canal.

5. Feedsupplements:Additional nutrients:Greenvegetables (carotenoids), fruits, skimmed milk, curd, butter – milk.

6. Feed Additives: These are Non-nutrients: Mushroom, herbal preparations [no side effects by Aanwala, Aloe-veera].

24. IGNEOUS ROCKS

Introduction : Petros = rocks and logos = science

Petrology means the science of rocks. It deals with the mode of occurrence composition, classification and origin of rocks and their relation to geological processes and history of the earth.

Rocks can be studies in two ways : The study of rocks as specimens in the laboratory is called Petrography which places emphasis on the purely descriptive part from textural mineralogical and chemical point of view. Petrogenesis deals with the origin and processes of formation of rocks. Petrology is a broader term which includes both petrography and petrogenesis.

Igneous rocks are formed by cooling and solidification of magma, either underneath the earth’s surface or above the earth’s surface.

Pre sowing seed treatment: Fortification with GA3 100 ppm (or) moringa leaf extract 2% for 16 h (or)KH₂PO4 2% for 16 hours

Age of the seedling for transplanting: The seeds are first sown in primary nursery (pot) and after 16 day the seedlings are transplanted to raised nursery and after 24 days transplanted to main field.

Abstract: Petunias, popular bedding plants, with variety of forms, sizes and shapes are employed for landscape planning, garden designs and container gardening. The numerous phenotypes viz., Grandifloras, Multifloras, Millifloras, Waves, Hedgifloras, etc. are complex hybrids. The outstanding marketable series of P. x hybrida have been developed for upright, spreading and semi-trailing to trailing habits. The leaf colour ranges from light to dark green and also variegated types. Flower colours with charming shades and patterns, picotte, star and pronounced venation of darker colours are available on world market. Petunias are strictly cross pollinated and progeny can segregate widely for traits due to heterozygosity. Increasing knowledge of the inheritance of traits and molecular genetics techniques are valuable tools aiding modern breeders. Numerous genes have been identified in the genus with some sequenced genes being used to create transformants with modified plant morphology, floral structure development, floral scent, and flower shelf life. Genes involved in the flavonoid biosynthesis pathway has enabled precision in the creation of flower colours or modification of pigment production and expression. An exploitation of sterility and incompatibility for production of F₁ hybrid seeds is discusses in detail.

Petunias (Petunia spp.) are annual or perennial plants belonging to Solanaceae family. The common kinds are rather weedy in habit, but their great profusion of bloom under all conditions makes them useful and popular. They are small herbs grown for their showy, often fragrant flower. The geographic distribution includes temperate and subtropical regions of Argentina, Uruguay, Paraguay, Bolivia and Brazil, with a centre of diversity in Southern Brazil. For longer flowering season they may be grown in bed borders, edgings, rock garden, window boxes, hanging baskets and pots. Petunia is considered to be the first cultivated bedding plant and has remained as a commercially important ornamental crop since the early days of horticulture and is one of the favourite genera for developing new varieties. Apart from its significance as an ornamental crop, petunia has proved to be one of the most excellent model crops for studies on gene regulation and genome structure, since the system combines innumerable and excellent technical features with a broad range of research possibilities.

ORIGIN AND DISTRIBUTION

Petunia is endemic to South America, with subtropical distribution ranging from 22^o to 39^oS. The major species richness is found in Brazil followed by Argentina, Uruguay, Paraguay, and Bolivia. All species occur in Brazil, except for P. occidentalis, which has a disjunct distribution restricted to the Sub-Andean mountains in northwestern Argentina and southern Bolivia. The Serra do Sudeste and neighbouring places in southern Rio Grande do Sul have a low-altitude mountain range and a set of diverse edaphic conditions. Petunia integrifolia and P. axillaris, parental species of garden petunia, are sympatric in these areas. Five species of Petunia grow in Serra do Sudeste, three of them namely P. bajeensis, P. exserta, and P. secreta are strict endemics. In the border of the Serra Geral in the state of Santa Catarina species of Petunia grow associated with grasslands, along forest borders, or on outcrops associated with Araucaria moist forests, at altitudes ranging from 800 to 1800 m. For this area the occurrence of four species, three of them strict endemics, P. bonjardinensis, P. reitzii and P. saxicola, restricted to the higher area of the plateau in Santa Catarina. There are two major disjunct areas of occurrence of Petunia: the Serra da Mantiqueira in Minas Gerais, Brazil, and the Sub-Andean region in Argentina and Bolivia. In the first, only P. mantiqueirensis is found, an endemic species phylogenetically related to the Brazilian highland group. The subtropical range of Petunia, with centers of diversity in southern Brazil, overlaps with that of Calibrachoa.

Petunias (Petunia spp.) are annual or perennial plants belonging to Solanaceae family. The common kinds are rather weedy in habit, but their great profusion of bloom under all conditions makes them useful and popular.  They are small herbs grown for their showy, often fragrant flower. The geographic distribution includes temperate and subtropical regions of Argentina, Uruguay, Paraguay, Bolivia and Brazil, with a centre of diversity in Southern Brazil. For longer flowering season they may be grown in bed borders, edgings, rock garden, window boxes, hanging baskets and pots. Petunia is considered to be the first cultivated bedding plant and has remained as a commercially important ornamental crop since the early days of horticulture and is one of the favourite genera for developing new varieties. Apart from its significance as an ornamental crop, petunia has proved to be one of the most excellent model crops for studies on gene regulation and genome structure, since the system combines innumerable and excellent technical features with a broad range of research possibilities.

S.O.867 (E) – In exercise of the powers conferred by sub-section (1) of section 3 of the Destructive Insects and Pests Act, 1914 (2 of 1914), and in suppression  of Plants, Fruits and Seeds (Regulation of import into India) Order 1984, except as respects things done or omitted to be done before such suppression, the Central Government hereby makes the following order for the purpose of prohibiting and regulating the import into India of agricultural articles mentioned herein, namely: -

Introduction

To keep pace with the ever-increasing demand for crop yield by the exploding population, use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides in agricultural production has become indispensable.  Production cost of agriculture has skyrocketed owing to the abandoning of green, organic farmyard manure and use of chemicals. However, the problems associated with chemical pesticides are abundant. The excessive application of chemical fertilizers causes soil sealing, fertility diminishing and residual problems. The leftover chemical fertilizers and pesticides have seriously affected the quality of agricultural products, people’s health and caused environmental pollution.  The over use of fertilizers has also damaged the soil’s original micro-ecological balance and deteriorated the diseases spread by soil.  While some pesticides must be abandoned because of their unacceptable non-target effect, there will always be a need in agriculture for safe and selective chemicals to limit the effects of pests.  More significantly, it is becoming increasingly more difficult and expensive to find new kinds of synthetic chemical pesticides.  Implications of chemical pesticides in ecological, environmental and human health problems have increased public awareness and concern regarding the continued use of agrichemicals that are damaging to human or  environmental health thereby obviating the search for effective alternative approaches which have minimal deleterious effects, more environmentally friendly, and will contribute to the goal of sustainability in agriculture.  In this line Plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR) present immense potential and promise as effective substitutes for chemicals.  PGPR enhance plant growth and survival, control soil-borne fungi, and induces systemic resistance to phytopathogens and is used as inoculants for biofertilization, phytostimulation and biocontrol.

Mutation: Natural genetic variation has exhausted. Genetic variation can be induced by mutations or changes in the DNA sequences of the plants.

Additional Tools for Plant Improvement

Increase in yield with no additional lands available for cultivation depends on development of high yielding varieties suitable for marginal cultivation.

• Food security

• Nutritional security

Need for additional tools to increase efficiency of breeding methods for genetic enhancement and propagation.

• Genomics

Genomics – Definition

Genomics - Study of an organism's entire genome / full genetic complement of an organism.

Introduction

pH is a quantitative measure of the concentration of hydrogen ions in a solution. The pH scale ranges from 0 to 14, with 7 being neutral. Lower pH indicates acidity, while higher pH indicated alkalinity. Pure water at 25°C has a pH of 7.0 as the concentrations of H3 O+ and OH-. pH is defined as potential of hydrogen and is a measure of how acidic or basic a substance or solution is. The concentration of Hydrogen (H+) in a solution determines its pH. Higher concentrations of H+ ions correspond to lower pH values (more acidic), and lower concentrations of H+ ions correspond to higher pH values (More alkaline/basic). pH is an important measurement concept in many fields, including chemistry, biology, and environmental science. pH of blood and other fluids of the body, secretions etc?, determine the health status of an individual. Likewise, pH determines the quality of soil for plant growth. In medical sciences, pH plays a crucial role in maintaining a healthy internal environment for various bodily functions. Internal environment of an animal or human is tightly regulated more so the pH of different body fluids like blood, saliva and stomach acid.

pH balance is a very prime aspect to maintain homeostasis inside a biological system. Speaking of which the first thing that comes to mind is the enzyme function. Many enzymes have a specific pH range for optimal activity. Any deviation from this specific pH range not only significantly disrupt their function but also hinder biochemical processes involved. Most vital operations of a cell are nutrition transport and waste disposal i?e?, excretion. pH of the fluids surrounding cells impacts these activities; hence, maintaining a proper pH is vital for healthy cell function. Different organs of the body need to maintain different pH ranges for functioning accordingly. Stomach operates at acidic pH to digest the food material ingested whereas, blood need alkaline pH for optimal oxygen transport by RBC.