eChapters

ABSTRACT

The world ocean with a coastline of approximately 3,50,000 km is the largest ecosystem on earth. Marine organisms are the major, sustaining components of ecosystem processes and are responsible for biogeochemical reactions that drive our climate changes. Despite this, many marine organisms are poorly described and little is known of broad spatial and temporal scale trends in their abundance and distribution. With new molecular and analytical techniques we can advance our knowledge of marine biodiversity at the species level to understand how marine biodiversity supports ecosystem structure, dynamics and resilience. We can then interpret environmental, ecological and evolutionary processes controlling and structuring marine ecosystem biodiversity. In biotechnology applications marine microbes represent a potential source for numerous commercially important biomolecules and their bioremediation capabilities are also remarkable. They also play a crucial role in decomposition of organic matter and cycling of nutrients. Microbes also serve as food for some bottom-living organisms. Understanding and preserving biodiversity was one of the most important global challenges for the past 20 years and will continue to be an important scientific issue into the new millennium. Our knowledge of marine microbial diversity has, however, been severely limited by relying on microorganisms that have been cultured which are less than 1%.

Abstract

The East Coast of Tamil Nadu exhibits a spectacular network of deltas formed by the easterly flowing river systems. The study of raw and digitally enhanced Landsat TM and IRS data shows, that these deltas were formed due to multivariate dynamic processes of fluvial, marine and aeolian actions. The wide fan shaped delta observed northwest and north of Madras city spanning out over an area of 700 sq.km is a feature, standing testimony to the PaleoCauvery river systems.

The regional slope and the overall arcuate arrangement of the crescent shaped lakes in the area and the tentacles of paleochannels show, that it is overall a fan shaped delta and its successive growth towards the sea might have been due to the constant progradation of lobes by continuous reworking of preceding lobes. The depressions in between successive concentric lobes have become the lakes. The absence of any beach ridges in such palaeo deltaic regime suggests that, it would be a sub aerial delta only. The overall arcuate shape of the shoreline in between Madras city in the south and Pulicat lake in the north is due to this fan delta. This feature once again symbolises the active river dominated delta. The Palar delta is a ‘cuspate’ one. The Ponnaiyar river has developed a linear delta, along a narrow depression found in between Tertiary uplands. While the avulsion phenomenon indicates the ancient shoreline near Villupuram, the east-west trending micro sandy uplands within the delta suggest, that it is a tide dominated delta.

Early and accurate crop-disease diagnosis is essential for preventing production losses and reducing unnecessary pesticide use. Manual diagnosis can be slow, subjective and difficult to apply across large agricultural areas. This chapter introduces computational approaches using artificial neural networks, fuzzy logic, support vector machines, deep learning and hybrid optimization models. It discusses image acquisition, preprocessing, feature extraction, pattern recognition and classification of disease symptoms from leaves, crop canopies and sensor data. Integration with precision-agriculture systems, mobile advisory applications and real-time monitoring enables timely intervention. Challenges involving data quality, field variability, model interpretation and large-scale deployment are examined through practical examples and case studies.

Abstract

The tectonic and the geomorphic features observed along the west coast of the area between Mangalore and Cape Comorin show that the NNW-SSE trending west coast has been carved out by the Western Ghats orogeny and the related NNW-SSE trending release fractures. The sinuosity of the otherwise straight coast line is due to Quaternary cymatogenic arching caused by the thrust related to the northerly movement of the Indian plate. The coast line has further attained peaks, projections and serrations due to the ENE-WSW trending series of Precambrian extension fractures which were reactivated gaining the northeasterly directed forces from the rising Carlsberg ridge. Overall, the west coast is being tectonically evolved even today due to the rise of Carlsberg ridge and the Indian plate movement.

1. Protein Estimation

The method developed by Lowry et al. (1951) is largely followed for the estimation of soluble protein. This method is quite sensitive and gives a moderately constant value.

Protein may also be estimated by analyzing the total nitrogen content. Multiplying total nitrogen value with 6.25 will give the crude protein content. However, the nitrogen per cent varies with amino acid composition of proteins. For more refined expression of protein percentage, different factors are used for different samples. Some of the conversion factors for cereal and oilseed are given below:

Climatic statistics applies quantitative methods to weather and climate observations, transforming raw records into information for forecasting, planning and resource management. This chapter explains how averages, variability, distribution, trends and extremes describe climatic behaviour over time and space. It introduces climate normals, measures of central tendency, dispersion, skewness, kurtosis, data quality, missing-value treatment, homogenization and outlier detection. Statistical interpretation helps distinguish short-term weather fluctuations from long-term climatic patterns. In agriculture, these techniques support crop planning, drought assessment, rainfall characterization and risk management. The chapter establishes the statistical foundation required for scientifically examining climate variability and its influence on crops, ecosystems and agricultural resources.

Air is one of the most important constituents of man’s environment. It is calculated that a roan breathes about 22,000 times a day inhaling about 16 kg of air by weight. Air is present everywhere and its entrance from one place to another cannot be checked. Clean and pure air is very essential for the health and survival of man.

13.1 Introduction

The World Bank Standards for water quality parameters show important because the acute and chronic impact on aquatic ecosystem causes very dangerous to the animals and human beings. It describes about the level of toxic concentration would be allowed to the aquatic ecosystem to survive living beings. The Indian standards also describes about the limit of toxic constituent, which are harmful to the aquatic living beings.

1. Aquarium/Under water garden

It is a glass enclosed controlled environment place for growing small tropical plants under water along with or without ornamental fishes.

It can be landscaped with artistically designed wood, stones, oyster shell, lime free coarse sand, etc.

If such aquarium contains fishes, then timely feed must be given to fish.

Plant species suitable for it are Alternanthera, Aponogeton crispus, Azolla, Cabomba caroliniana, Nymphaea, Sagittaria, Vallisneria gigantean, etc.

The packing and transportation of fish and shellfish seed demand meticulous care to preserve the health and survival of juveniles. This process involves the use of suitable containers, maintaining sufficient oxygen levels, and regulating water temperature and quality to minimize stress and reduce mortality rates. In aquaculture, it is common to transport hatchlings, fry, and fingerlings of cultivable species. Occasionally, mature broodstock must also be moved to facilitate seed production. In certain regions, transporting live market-sized fish from capture sites to markets is a highly organized industry, though the focus here is primarily on the transport of brood fish and seed for aquaculture purposes. Historically, fish seed has been transported in earthen pots, often carried manually or suspended using slings from collection points to nurseries or markets. These traditional methods, while long-standing, typically result in significant mortality. However, advancements in live fish transport have emerged due to a better understanding of fish physiology at different life stages—hatchling, fry, fingerling, juvenile, and adult—and the identification of key causes of mortality during transit. Although traditional practices may not yield high survival rates, they still offer value, particularly in rural aquaculture settings where advanced technology may be impractical. Modern transportation methods are based on two interrelated approaches: understanding the internal physiological needs of fish and managing the external environment in which they are transported. Effective integration of these approaches—such as controlling oxygen levels, pH, and ammonia in transport media, and preparing fish through conditioning or pre-transport fasting—can significantly boost survival.

Biochemical and biotechnological methods present eco-friendly and efficient pathways for converting biomass and organic waste into valuable resources, contributing to environmental protection and sustainable development. These methods rely on microbial and enzymatic processes to break down waste materials, resulting in the production of biofuels, chemicals, and other beneficial byproducts. In today’s pursuit of sustainability and circular economy principles, the concept of waste valorization—turning waste into valuable products—has gained significant traction. Biochemical and biotechnological approaches stand out due to their specificity, lower energy requirements, and minimal environmental impact. These techniques transform organic waste into bio-based products like biofuels, bioplastics, organic acids, enzymes, fertilizers, and animal feed. In contrast to thermochemical processes that operate at high temperatures and generate less selective outputs, biochemical processes function under milder conditions, using microbes and enzymes to achieve targeted conversions. These approaches reduce reliance on landfills and fossil resources while creating high-value products from underutilized biomass. A core aspect of biochemical valorization is the microbial breakdown of complex organic compounds such as carbohydrates, proteins, and fats commonly found in agricultural waste, food residues, and industrial effluents. This is accomplished by natural microbial communities or genetically enhanced strains with tailored metabolic capabilities. Anaerobic digestion exemplifies this process, where organic waste is decomposed without oxygen to yield biogas (mainly methane and carbon dioxide) and nutrient-rich digestate. The biogas can be harnessed for energy generation or as a transport fuel, while the digestate serves as a sustainable fertilizer, thereby supporting circular agricultural practices.

The phenomenon we call tsunami is a series of large waves of extremely long wavelength and period usually generated by a violent, impulsive undersea disturbance or activity near the coast or in the ocean. A tsunami is a very long-wavelength wave of water that is generated by sudden displacement of the seafloor or disruption of any body of standing water.  Tsunami are sometimes called “seismic sea waves”, although, as we will see, they can be generated by mechanisms other than earthquakes.  Tsunami have also been called “tidal waves”, but this term should not be used because they are not in any way related to the tides of the Earth.  Because tsunami occur suddenly, often without warning, they are extremely dangerous to coastal communities.

Definition: A tree is a perennial plant with an elongated stem or trunk, supporting branches and leaves in most species.

Trees are not a taxonomic group but include a variety of plant species that have independently evolved a woody trunk and branches as a way to tower above other plants to compete for sunlight. Trees tend to be long lived, living up to several hundred years.

Abstract

Entrepreneurs take responsibility of their ‘business’ tad differently than their counterpart, the traditional businessman. A businessman walks on the pre-defined route whereas the entrepreneur creates his own alley-way, which if successful, becomes the rulebook for that trade. Lately, ecological issues have taken centre-stage as climatic changes have endangered the sustainable growth of the business. A new breed of entrepreneurs, alias ecopreneurs, functions in this ‘new’ space and endeavour to frame an innovative business landscape. Ecopreneurs possess singular focus on the safe-keep of the ecology. But in order to sustain the efforts of businesses in ecology, it is imperative that they remain economically viable too. Thus, ecopreneurial process is not only about fulfilling the business’ responsibility towards ecology, but also about the marketability of the product or service. In order to evaluate the ecopreneurial process, organic farming is considered as a case. In this paper, selected organic farms are analysed in an environment - market continuum, developed particularly for this study which is in tandem with the works of Schaltegger (2002) and Blake and Mouton (1964).The study reveals inadequacy of market performance of the individual and farm level ecopreneurs in the state of West Bengal, in spite of their strong inclination towards care for the environment.

1. Introduction

Underutilized vegetables are essential to the lives of the poor in rural and urban areas, as they provide poverty reduction and environmental sustainability for healthy societies. Traditionally, underutilized vegetables have been known to play an important role in the nutrition of rural communities, especially during droughts, famines and the dry season. Some of these undeveloped resources have been domesticated, but most are still wild and worthless. The potential of these underutilized vegetables has been overlooked as modern agriculture has progressed. These vegetables are also called by different names including minor crops, orphan crops, neglected species, Underused Vegetables, under developed vegetables, local traditional, alternative vegetables and also promising species. Underutilized species have a lot of genetic variety, and they’re tied to a lot of indigenous knowledge. 

Capacity Building is the improvement in an individual or organization’s facility or capability to produce and perform. Since the year 1950s, international organizations, governments, non-governmental organizations and communities use the concept of capacity building as part of “social and economic development “ in states and national plans. The Agriculture Sector in India occupies the centre stage to promote inclusive growth, enhance rural income and sustain food and nutritional security. To spur growth in this sector Government of India intends to follow massive Agricultural Production, reduction in wastage of produce, credit support to farmers and a thrust to the food processing sector. Indeed, Agriculture continues to be a way of life in our Country, it provides employment to around 60% of the work force and contributes almost 18% to our Gross Domestic Products (GDP). With more than 6 lakh villages, home to millions of farmers and farm workers, it is very difficult to visualize a prosperous India without Agriculture and Rural Development.

Spices are defined as “A strongly flavored or aromatic substance of vegetable origin, obtained from tropical plants, commonly used as a condiment”. American Spice Trade Association (ASTA) defines spices as “Any dried plant product used primarily for seasoning purposes”. The word “spice” came from the Latin word “species,” meaning specific kind. The name reflects the fact that all plant parts have been cultivated for their aromatic fragrant, pungent or any other desirable properties including the seed (aniseed, caraway, coriander), leaf (cilantro, kari, bay, mint), berry (allspice, juniper, black pepper), bark (cinnamon), kernel (nutmeg), aril (mace), stem (chives), stalk (lemongrass), rhizome (ginger, turmeric, galangal), root (lovage, horse radish), flower (saffron), bulb (garlic, onion), fruit (star anise, cardamom, chile pepper) and flower bud (clove). Spices are distinguished from herbs, which are leafy, green plant parts used for flavoring purpose. Herbs, such as a basil or orengano, may be used fresh and are commonly chopped in to smaller pieces; spices however are dried and usually ground in to a powder (Anonymous, 2007).

In ancient times, spices were as precious as gold, and as significant as medicines, preservatives and perfumes. India is known as the home of spices and produces a wide variety of spices like black pepper, cardamom (small and large), ginger, garlic, turmeric, chilli and a large variety of tree and seed spices. These have nutritionally insignificant quantities as a food additive for the purpose of flavoring. They are good not only for our taste buds but also for our health. They have medicinal properties and also used as preservatives. Spices are well known appetizers, digestives and considered essential in culinary art all over the world. Some of them have antioxidant properties, while others possess strong antimicrobial and antibiotic activities. Spices increase the secretion of saliva rich in ptyalin, which facilitates starch digestion in the stomach, rendering the meals, which are rich in carbohydrates, more digestible. They inhibit thrombus formation and accelerate thromobolysis (Anonymous, 2007a).

Definition: A lawn is an area of land of closely mowed grasses that is primarily developed for aesthetic and recreational purpose.

A lawn is an integral part of a garden or landscape. Besides aesthetic and recreational purposes, lawn serves several other purposes. The distinguishing characteristic of turf grasses is the ability to withstand close mowing and still providing a functional, dense and healthy ground cover. Its maintenance requires little patience and care, however the final result is always worth waiting as it gives very beautiful and soothing effect to the landscape. It is also called as ‘Heart of garden’.

Lawn can be called as turf, pitch, field, sod, yard or green depending upon the plantation, usage and continent.

Traditional food-preservation methods reflect generations of practical knowledge concerning food safety, storage and seasonal availability. Although commonly performed at the household level, these methods are supported by scientific principles such as reducing water activity, lowering pH, inactivating enzymes and restricting microbial growth. Blanching, fermentation, sun drying, increasing solute concentration, pickling, smoking and curing preserve foods through different combinations of heat, dehydration, acidity, beneficial microorganisms and antimicrobial compounds. Their materials and equipment are generally accessible, making them suitable for home-scale application. The chapter explains the principle, mechanism, application and nutritional implications of each method while showing their continuing relevance in contemporary food systems.

Dahi: It is the product obtained from pasteurized or boiled milk by souring, natural or by harmless lactic acid or other bacterial culture. It is also called Curd (Plate 126).

Daidzein: These are the substance from which daidzein is derived and are isoflavone C15 H10 O4 found chiefly in legumes and esp. soybeans.

Dairy: It is a farm building often a single room in which milk is cooled and temporarily stored prior to collection for transportation to the commercial diary. Here the milk is treated and made into cream, butter and cheese. Or

Dairy: It is a farm building often a single room, in which the milk collected is pooled, temporarily stored prior to collection for retailing or direct sale to the consumer. OrDairy: It is a room, building, or establishment where milk is kept and butter / cheese is made or it is the department of farming / farm that is concerned with the production of milk, butter, and cheese oran establishment for the sale / and distribution of milk and milk products.

Dairy farm: It is a farm on which the principal activity is the milk production.

Dairy husbandry: It deals with care, breeding, feeding, milking of the diary cattle and the production and sale of the milk. It is the economical management of a dairy, including looking after the dairy cattle and proper disposal of milk and milk products.

Dairy products: These are the milk preparation, including butter, cream, cheese, ghee, yoghurt, pasteurized milk, tonned milk, butter milk etc processed and prepared in dairy. Ice cream and kulfi or sweets are not included in this.

Damage: Damage is a physical spoilage, often a partial deterioration, are subjectively judge and very difficult to measure and usually reported as % of the sample. Daminozide: It is a growth regulator which is used for red colour development in apple.