eChapters

Green composites are emerging as promising alternatives to conventional synthetic composites in response to climate change, resource scarcity, environmental degradation, and increasing demand for sustainable materials. This chapter reviews the current landscape of green composites and examines the challenges associated with their broader adoption. It discusses technological innovations, smart sustainable materials, bio-based nanocomposites, hybrid systems, environmental and economic implications, and the relationship between green composites and sustainable development. Processing limitations, high costs, regulatory uncertainties, and commercialization challenges are considered alongside opportunities for technological advancement. Life-cycle assessment and supportive policies are important for evaluating environmental impacts and accelerating the transition toward circular and sustainable material systems.

Horticulture is the science and art of production, improvement and utilization of fruits vegetable, ornamental, aromatical medicinal, spices and plantation crops. The word horticulture derived from latin words ‘Hortus’ means garden and culture means cultivation.

The horticulture science can subdivided into different following branches on the basis of product utilization and crop involved.

Pomology: This word is derived from latin word pomus ‘Fruit’ and Greek term logy ‘Science’. The branch deals with the cultivation of fruits called pomology.

Olericulture: It is the branch of horticulture which deals with cultivation of vegetable crops product of which is utilized for culinary purpose after cooking. Olericulture word is derived from the latin word oleris means pot herbs and the english word culture means the culture of succulent vegetables.

Plantation crops: Cultivation and processing of tropical crops grown on a large scale centered around a factory constitute the plantation crops e.g., tea, coffee, black pepper.

Spices crops: These crops are grown and used for providing fragrance and flavouring to various food stuffs e.g., cinnamon, clove, pepper, coriander etc.

Medicinal plants: These plants are rich source of alkaloids and steroids having prophylactic and curative properties for treatment in several diseases e.g., Aloe, Isabgol.

Aromatic plants: Aromatic plants are rich source of essential oil which is used for cosmetic industry e.g., Rose, lemon grass etc.

Electromagnetic and advanced heating technologies offer rapid and energy-efficient alternatives to conventional food processing. These systems use microwaves, radio frequency, electrical resistance, infrared radiation, lasers, photonic energy and dielectric heating to generate heat within food or directly at its surface. Faster and more uniform energy transfer can improve microbial inactivation, shorten processing time and reduce damage to nutrients and sensory characteristics. The chapter explains the principles, mechanisms, applications and nutritional effects of microwave, radio-frequency, ohmic and infrared heating. It also considers laser-based and photonic techniques. Particular attention is given to heating uniformity, product properties, equipment control, energy efficiency and the prevention of underprocessed areas.

Banana is an important fruit of India ranking second fruit next to mango. Its name “Adams fig”, “Apple of Paradise” and the botanical name M. paradisiaca are suggestive of its antiquity. The edible banana is indigenous to warm moist parts of Asia and probably originated somewhere in the mountainous hot tropical regions of South-East Asia (Assam, Burma, Thiland or Indo-China region). Bananas are a very important commodity for developing countries, with a clear dual nature which complicates the analysis. They are at the same time a major staple commodity, together with rice, wheat and maize, and a fundamental export commodity. Many issues are involved in order to make of banana a very sensitive commodity at the international level, not only on economical grounds but also on the environmental, social and political aspects.

Origin and History

It is believed that the earliest written reference to banana is in Sankrist and dates back to around 500 BC. Bananas are suspected to be the first fruit in the earth by some horticulturists. The origin of bananas is placed in Southeast Asia, in the jungles of Malaysia, Indonesia or Philippines, where so many varieties of wild bananas still grow at present. Bananas have later travelled with human population. The first Europeans to know about bananas were the armies of Alexander the Great, while they were campaigning in India in 327 BC. In the Middle Ages, the banana was thought to be the forbidden fruit of paradise by both Muslims and Christians. The Arabs brought them to Africa. Africans are credited to have given the present name, since the word banana would be derived from the Arab finger. The Portuguese brought them to the Canary Islands. Bananas changed during all these trips, gradually losing its seeds, filling out with flesh and diversifying. When Spaniards and Portuguese explorers went to the New World, the banana travelled with them. In 1516, when Fiar Tomas de Berlanga sailed to Santo Domingo, he brought banana roots with him. From there, bananas spread to the Caribbean and Latin American countries. Bananas started to be traded internationally by the end of XIX century.

Guava is the fifth most important fruit crop of India in area and production after mango, banana, citrus and papaya and also fifth most important fruit crop of India in area after mango, banana, citrus and apple (Anonymous, 2018). It is also called apple of tropics because it is sold at moderate prices. It is widely grown in different part of the tropics and subtropics. It is quite hardy, prolific bearer and highly remunerative crop which requires less care. Guava is an important fruit crop of India and has gained considerable importance because of its high nutritive value, availability at moderate price, a pleasant aroma and good flavour. Guava is one of the most common fruit liked alike by both the rich and the poor. Guava is a rich source of vitamin C and pectin. It is very rich and cheap source of vitamin C. The fruit is relished when mature or ripe and freshly plucked from the tree. It is also used for many preparations like jelly, cheese and juice.

Origin and Distribution

The world leading producer of Guava is India. It contributes 40.4% production of guava followed by china with 10.0% production. It is cultivated in India since early the 17^th century. Its origin is Tropical America. It has been spread throughout the tropics and subtropics. Guava is also cultivated in Israel but it is not common in the Mediterranean area and United States. However, Guava is growing widely in Southern Asia. It is cultivated in Ceylon at altitude of 1500 m and it also grown throughout Myanamar. In Florida, the first commercial guava planting was established around 1912 in Palma Sola. It is common throughout all warm areas of tropical America and in the West Indies (since 1526), the Bahamas, Bermuda and southern Florida where it was reportedly introduced in 1847 and was common over more than half the State by 1886. Apparently it did not arrive in Hawaii until the early 1800’s. Now it occurs throughout the Pacific islands. Generally, it is a home fruit tree or planted in small groves, except in India where it is a major commercial resource. In 1972, Hawaii processed, for domestic use and export, more than 2,500 tons (2,274 MT) of guavas, over 90% from wild trees. During the period of high demand in World War II, the wild guava crop in Cuba was said to be 10,000 tons (9,000 MT), and over 6,500 tons (6,000 MT) of guava products were exported. Brazil’s modern guava industry is based on seeds of an Australian selection grown in the botanical garden of the Sao Paulo Railway Company at Tatu.

1.1 Introduction Millets are the most ancient grains that have been cultivated since time immemorial and consumed as food, feed and pastures. Millets are considered nutraceuticals’ since they possess significantly higher nutritional qualities compared to other cereals. Millets are grown across the world for grains and human food due to their nutritional advantages and ability to withstand adversities. Millets are preferred over other grains due to their short life cycle, low input requirement and ensured production with in-built genetic tolerance for abiotic stresses. Major millets include Pearl millet (Pennisetum glaucum L.) and sorghum (Sorghum bicolor L.), while there are numerous minor millets classified as small millets. With an extent of over 0.87 lakh ha and a production of 0.66 kg ha-1, India is the world leader in small millet production (Maitra and Shankar, 2019). Small millets are primarily grown on rainfed uplands in arid and semi-arid climates with sub-optimal management. Following the green revolution due to extreme demands for food, the main focus in India was on the production of fine cereals mainly rice and wheat to overcome hunger and poverty, while millets became ignored grains. Furthermore, urbanization, increased affluence and dietary changes relegated millets to the status of poor man’s food. However, due to a re-evaluation of nutritious characteristics, millets have recently regained their lost prestige (Maitra, 2020).

INTRODUCTION
Depending on the product being made, different methods are used to prepare fruit-based products, including smoothies, jams, sauces, dried fruits, fruit preserves, and fruit juices. Specialized equipment is usually needed for each process in order to attain the required consistency and quality. Here is a summary of how various fruit-based products are made and an introduction to the standard tools used in their production.
SQUASH
This kind of fruit beverage has 40–50% commercially available total soluble solids and at least 25% fruit juice or pulp. Approximately 1.0 per cent acid and 350 ppm sulfur dioxide or 600 ppm sodium benzoate are also present. To serve, it is diluted. Commercial squash is made with mango, orange, and pineapple. Another way to make it is to use potassium metabisulphite (KMS) as a preservative for lemon, bael, papaya, etc., or sodium benzoate as a preservative for jamun, passion fruit, peach, plum, raspberry, strawberry, grapefruit, etc.
In India, people want cold beverages almost all year round. Acid squashes hold a significant position among these fruit juices. Due to their abundance of vital vitamins, minerals, and other nutrients, these are highly well-liked. Squash is a fruit beverage that has at least 25% fruit juice or pulp and at least 40% total soluble solids (sugar). Additionally, it includes 1-2 percent edible acid. Since squash has a relatively low sugar content, it should be preserved by adding an approved chemical preservative, such as sodium or potassium metabisulphite or sodium benzoate, along with flavour and colour. Fruits like mango, orange, pineapple, litchi, lemon, and so on can be used to make squash.

Hybrids are released for commercial cultivation either by the Central or State Varieties Release Committee. The release of a hybrid for commercial cultivation is based on conclusive demonstration of its superiority over the best existing hybrids (included as check in evaluation trials) in yielding ability or in some other features of economic importance, e.g. abiotic and biotic stresses etc. Due to above reason, hybrids are extensively evaluated for their performance, resistance to diseases and insects, and quality in multilocational trials. The multilocational trials are conducted under All India Coordinated Vegetable Improvement Projects, which play a key role in testing, identification and release of new hybrids. Before release of hybrids, three activities and operations are involved. These are:

Grape was known to grow in India from ancient time but its commercialization is relatively recent, with the discovery of, Anab-e-Shahi’ variety by Mr. Shanker Pillay in 1930 from the bungalow of Nawab Baquer Ali Khan. This variety performed very well in the Hyderabad region of Andhra Pradesh and in fact gave initial boost to the Indian viticulture. It was initially known as ‘Malta’ and proved to be a pioneer in revolutionizing grape industry in south Indian.

Grape growing in north India received impetus from its success in south Indian. The commercial grape growing in north India dates back to early sixties when the ‘Pusa Seedless’ variety was released by the Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi. Latter on, the Punjab Government imported 100,000 cuttings of early-maturing variety ‘Perlette’ from California (USA). This variety acclimatized well and proved good for commercial cultivation.

In western Rajasthan the grape was introduced around 1960, which became popular among the growers. The fruit yield declined slowly thereafter and the grape cultivation was almost abandoned by 1971–72, particularly in the arid district. The problem of the drop of flower and flower-bud has been over of the major constraints in grape growing in western Rajasthan.

‘Hydroponics’ technique was first developed on commercial scale as early as in 1930 by

A. De. Condole             B. J.D. Hooker

C. W.F. Greicke            D. Hugo De Vries

Emerging preservation technologies are being developed to meet increasing expectations for food safety, nutritional quality, sustainability and longer shelf life. Greater investigation remains necessary to understand their effects, limitations and suitability for large-scale industrial application. This chapter examines innovative physical, chemical and biological methods used at different stages of the food chain. Technologies include plasma-activated water, cold atmospheric plasma, advanced oxidation, electrolysed water, space-food preservation, hurdle systems and biopreservation. Their mechanisms involve reactive species, microbial membrane damage, oxidation, combined environmental stresses and beneficial biological agents. The chapter assesses their applications, advantages and disadvantages while highlighting research, regulation, process standardisation, equipment cost and commercial scalability.

Fermentation process is known to humans since ancient times. It involves the transformation of raw materials into value added or nutritional products as a result of microbial action or their growth. The fermentation as a science involves aspects of the biological action of microbes, biochemical changes in the substrates and metabolites formed and their effect on food, health and nutritional applications. While fermentation as technology, involves chemical engineering, food engineering and instrumentation aspects and commercialization of the products prepared keeping in view the consumer acceptability. The term fermentation is derived from the Latin word ‘Fervere - to boil’ thus describing the actions of yeasts on extracts of fruits or malted grain. Fermented foods and beverages enhance the pleasure of eating and their nutritional roles include indirect contributions through subjective enhancement of appetite. The instant mixes for fermented or fermentable products such as idli, dosai, dhokla and bhatura mix can reduce the overnight fermenting of the raw materials required for preparation of these products. The instant mixes for idli & dhokla are quite common in the market. However, instant mix for Jalebi and Bhatura are still emerging. Such products add convenience to the consumers and products can be prepared instantly. Certain other fermented foods include dairy products, pickles, sauerkrauts, Kanji, beverages, food supplements and nutraceuticals from fermented biomass.

1.      Callipers are used to measure_____________. (Diameter)

2.      Biltmore stick is used to measure_____________. (Diameter)

3.      Wedge prism with 5 BAF and tallied 50 numbers of trees/ acre then basal area per acre is_____________ __________. (250)

4.      A ring count is most accurate in aging tree by using increment borer on _____________ of the trunk. (Lower region)

5.      False ring is a/an_____________ ring for a given year. (Second)

6.      A formula to determine diameter quotient for each form class is called_____________. (Hojer’s formula)

7.      The instrument used to determine the age of a tree is_____________. (Pressler’s increment borer)

8.      _____________ ,_____________ and_____________ are the variables required for general volume table preparation. (Diameter, height and form)

9.      The sampling method used in non-random sampling are_____________ ,_____________ and _____________. (Selective, Systematic and Sequential)

10.  _____________ formula is used for determining increment per cent. (Schneider’s)

1. The process of harvesting, conversion and disposal of standing forest produce is called _____________. (Forest utilization)

2. Palmarosa grass oil is known as_____________. (Geranium Oil)

3. Terminalia chebula fruit tans is commonly called as_____________. (Myrobalans)

4. The gum resin_____________ is obtained from Garcinia morella. (Gamboges)

5. Black dammer is_____________. (Canarium strictum)

6. Rock dammer is_____________. (Hopea odorata)

7. White dammer is_____________. (Vetaria indica)

8. True dammer is_____________. (Agathis loranthifolius)

9. The Indian copal tree is_____________. (Vetaria indica)

10. The Indian gum arabica or babul gum is obtained from_____________ species. (Acacia nilotica)

5.1. SEED AND SEED PRODUCTION

Origin of Plentiful Yield is the Seed - Parashara 400BC

Good Seed in Good Soil Yield Abundantly - Manu Smriti 200BC

Botanically seed is a matured ovule containing an embryo in arrested state of development with a food reserve (endosperm) and protective coat (seed coat). In albuminous seeds the endosperm is present eg. rice, wheat, castor (cereals). Whereas, exalbuminous seeds the endosperm is absent eg. onion and pea (pulses).

Types of fruit/ seed

———————— is a thornless and seedless selection from Kagzi lime.

A. Pramalini            B. Vikram

C. Chakradhar        D. Jai devi

Quality standards are essential in the highly competitive global textile and apparel industry, where products must satisfy increasingly demanding consumer expectations and international trade requirements. They establish consistent benchmarks for regulatory compliance, product safety, performance and ethical production. Standards also strengthen trust among manufacturers, brands, retailers and consumers while facilitating trade between countries. They are authoritative documents containing requirements, specifications, guidelines or characteristics that ensure materials, products, processes and services remain fit for their intended purposes. By providing common terminology, procedures and expectations, quality standards enable stakeholders throughout the supply chain to communicate effectively, evaluate products objectively and maintain consistent levels of performance and conformity.

Introduction to DHAN Foundation

DHAN (Development of Humane Action) Foundation is a grassroots action agency working with poor communities in villages. Enhancing poor people’s livelihoods in sustainable way and enabling the poor communities are the focus of the programmes. The mission of the organisation is to build institute for innovation in the development work and reaching significance to bring positive changes in the lives of poor. DHAN Foundation was established in year 1997 as spin off institution of PRADAN (Professional Assistance for Development Action) based at New Delhi.

DHAN Foundation believes in building the capacity of people in planning, organizing, conflict resolution and implementation of development programmes. This will be possible only when people are encouraged to work on a single thematic focus, either through micro finance or small scale irrigation theme, for a substantive period to pick-up the generic skill of developing viable alternatives to their stalemate situation; DHAN Foundation initiatives are aimed at building people constituencies around specific activity, these institution will move into civic programmes like health, Education and Information Technology to address their member’s needs. Simultaneously DHAN Foundation as a mothering institution promotes thematic organizations as subsidiaries to upscale the matured themes and continue the promotional role to sustain the people’s organization in the specific theme for e.g. micro finance or irrigation.

2.1. Introduction

The engine is the source that generates power. It transforms chemical energy in fuel into mechanical energy for power. Diesel internal combustion engines are invariably used in all the tractors. In these engines, very high compression of the air ignites the fuel as compared to spark plug that ignites fuel in petrol engines. The air in the diesel engine is compressed with a compression ratio typically between 15 and 22 resulting in a 40 bar (about 600 psi) pressure as compared to 8 to 14 bar (about 200 psi) in the petrol engine. This high compression heats the air to 550°C (1022°F). At about this moment, small droplets of fuel are sprayed in an atomized form directly into the compressed air in the combustion chamber.

2.2. How does it work?

Any engine will work with four strokes, namely suction, compression, power and exhaust (Fig 2.1). It will also complete two revolutions of the crankshaft. In the suction stroke, pure air is drawn into the cylinder through the inlet valve. The exhaust valve gets closed and the crankshaft completes half a revolution. In the compression stroke, the piston moves up while the valves remain closed. The air which is drawn into the cylinder during the suction stroke is compressed. There is a rise in temperature. The hot air ignites the fuel injected into the cylinder. The crankshaft again completes half a revolution. In the power stroke, the hot products of combustion, viz., carbon dioxide and nitrogen expand. The piston is forced down. The valves remain closed and the crankshaft completes half a revolution. In the exhaust stroke, the exhaust valve opens while the piston reaches the lowest point of travel. Then the burnt gases are swept out.