eChapters

1. Introduction

The agricultural sector plays a pivotal role in driving economic development in India, a nation with a population of 1.39 billion, making it the world’s second most populous country according to the United Nations’ World Population Prospects 2019. With 54.6 percent of the workforce engaged in agriculture as per the 2011 Census, and contributing 18.6 percent to the Gross Value Added (GVA) in 2021-22, its significance cannot be overstated. Notably, women play a substantial role in this sector, with rural females exhibiting a higher workforce participation rate of 41.8 percent compared to 35.31 percent for urban women (MoSPI, 2017). In rural communities, agriculture and allied sector is the primary source of livelihood that includes 80 percent of all economically active women, out of which 33 percent constitute agricultural labour force and 48 percent are self-employed farmers. Rural women are engaged at all levels of the agricultural value chain; i.e., production- pre-harvest, post-harvest, processing, packaging, marketing to increase productivity in agriculture (Nilam Patel etal, 2022). As per Pingali et al. (2019), the ratio of women to men working in the agricultural sector has increased over the time and made a greater amount of contribution to GDP per capita. They are the momentous demographic group for a sustainable food system (FAO, 2011). Empowering women in agriculture through reforms aimed at ensuring equal access to resources, skill development, and opportunities is projected to increase agricultural output in developing countries by 2.5 to 4 percent (FAO, 2011).

Phenol is normally a benzene ring containing an –OH group, and hence an aromatic alcohol. The term “phenolic” refers to similar aromatic compounds with one or more -OH groups. Phenolics constitute one of the most widespread classes of secondary metabolites. Commonly talked about class of compounds like anthocyanins, flavonoids, lignins, tannins, coumarins and chalcones are all phenolic substances. Phenolics are water insoluble substances. However, the water solubility increases with the increase in the number of -OH groups. Phenolics absorb electromagnetic radiation strongly. Many of the phenolics absorb in the visible part of the spectrum (Ex. anthocyanins) and are coloured. Phenolics are produced in plants by 1. Shikimate pathway through phenylalanine (C₆-C3) and 2. Acetate/malonate pathway.

Phenol is normally a benzene ring containing an –OH group, and hence an aromatic alcohol. The term phenolic refers to similar aromatic compounds with one or more -OH groups. Phenolics constitute one of the most widespread classes of secondary metabolites. Commonly talked about class of compounds like anthocyanins, flavonoids, lignins, tannins, coumarins and chalcones are all phenolic substances. Phenolics are water insoluble substances. However, the water solubility increases with the increase in the number of -OH groups. Phenolics absorb electromagnetic radiation strongly. Many of the phenolics absorb in the visible part of the spectrum (Ex. anthocyanins) and are coloured. Phenolics are produced in plants by 1. Shikimate pathway through phenylalanine (C6.C3)  and 2. Acetate/ malonate pathway.

Phenolics are broadly distributed in the plant kingdom and are the most abundant secondary metabolites of plants. Plant polyphenols have drawn increasing attention due to their potent antioxidant properties and their marked effects in the prevention of various oxidative stress associated diseases such as cancer. Polyphenols are a structural class of mainly natural, but also synthetic, and semisynthetic, organic chemicals characterized by the presence of large multiples of phenol structural units. The number and characteristics of these phenol structural underlie the unique physical, chemical, and biological (metabolic, toxic, therapeutic, etc.) properties of particular members of the class. The term polyphenol derives from poly-, from the ancient Greek word (polus, meaning “many, much”) and the word phenol which refers to a chemical structure/substructure formed by attaching to an aromatic phenyl or benzenoid ring an alcohol-type hydroxyl (-OH) group (giving rise to the “-ol” suffix). The term “polyphenol” has been in use since 1894.

Plant growth is resultant of all the environmental factors – climatic, physiographic, edaphic and biotic factors.

For a particular field – it is primarily a function of climate with temperature and light – being the most important factors. – Close relationship exists between plant phenology and both latitude and altitude.

Phenols constitute a class of aromatic organic compounds having at least one hydroxyl group attached directly to the benzene ring.

In organic chemistry, phenols, sometimes called phenolics, are a class of chemical compounds consisting of a hydroxyl group (—OH) bonded directly to an aromatic hydrocarbon group. The simplest of the class is phenol, which is also called carbolic acid C₆H₅OH. Phenolic compounds are classified as simple phenols or polyphenols based on the number of phenol units in the molecule.

Introduction Solid–liquid extraction process, has been extensively used for extraction of bioactive compounds from plant food matrices by using appropriate solvent, which can be used as functional ingredients and additives in food processing, pharmaceutical sectors, and others industries. Usually this extraction/recovery process is based on unsteady diffusion of compounds targeted for extraction, through the matrices followed by the dissolution of the extractable compounds in the bulk of the used solvent (Milic, Rajkovic, Stamenkovic, & Veljkovic, 2013). The concentrations of bioactive compounds in food matrices as well as in the extracts are generally low in percent, so extra energies are required to improve the yield of the extraction process while minimizing the overall cost. From the technological approach, extraction process is mainly associated with the operating variables such as solvent used, extraction technique, operating temperature, concentration of solid in solvent, and extraction time, and by optimizing these parameters extraction yield could be enhanced (Milic et al., 2013; Orphanides, Goulas, & Gekas, 2014).

Introduction

Mosquito-borne diseases such as malaria, filariasis, Japaneseencephalitis, chikungunya and dengue hemorrhagic fever cause extensive morbidity and take heavy toll of life in the developing nations particularly in the tropics. Every year about 300-500 million people are estimated to be affected by malaria alone (WHO report, 2000). In India around two million cases of malaria are being reported annually although real burden is many fold higher (Kumar et al. 2007). Similarly, lymphatic filariasis caused by Wuchereria bancrofti affects about 120 million people worldwide. India contributes about 40%  to  the total global burden of filariasis and accounts for about 50% of the people at risk of infection (ICMR bulletin, 2002). Anopheles stephensi is recognized as a major vector for urban malaria in India (Kumar 1997).

Introduction

Plasticity is a unique attribute by which the otherwise sessile plant species are capable of adjusting to environmental vagaries by changing their phenotypic and morphological characters. Any plant population will be able to survive only if it can respond to an extremely variable environment by becoming more plastic and more genetically variable. To achieve this, plants should be able to suitably change their morphology anatomy and physiology or any one of these parameters based on environmental changes so as to improve their adaptability and survival in the altered environment. When such changes are genetically heritable, then they lead to species evolution.

Plasticity helps plants to adapt to new environmental conditions, after migration to new geographical areas, by genetic assimilation of traits that can help to improve their performance under a new set of conditions. Understanding plasticity is important for predicting and managing the effect of climate change on native species as well as crop plants. Response of plants to modified environmental conditions is critical for their persistence.

Phenotypic plasticity has been defined as the ability of an individual genotype to produce different phenotypes when exposed to different environmental conditions (Pigliucci et al., 2006). This includes the ability of a plant to modify its development in response to environmental cues and also its ability to bring about changes in its metabolism which increases the chances of survival of an organism under a specific condition.

Pheromones are neuronal signaling molecules synthesized by various organisms and then excreted into the environment, where they typically stimulate individuals of the same species to react to environmental changes (e.g., temperature shifts, biological stimuli, or nutritional changes) (Jun Young Park et al., 2019). It is thought that most organisms, from prokaryotes to higher animals such as humans, can produce and use pheromones for communication between nonspecific individuals. In most cases, pheromones trigger neuronal events that are linked to various behavioral responses. The outcome of such neuronal stimulation includes the modulation of developmental and/or physiological programs that can support adaptation to new environments. 

Semiochemicals are chemical substances that mediate communication between organisms.

Classified into pheromones (intra specific semiochemicals) and allelochemicals (inter specific semiochemicals).

1. Basic Information

Philippines  is located between 4o23’N and 21o25’N latitude, and between 116oE and 127oE longitude. It is an archipelago of 7,107 islands with three major groups of islands: Luzon, Visayas and Mindanao. It is bounded by the Bashi Channel up north, Sulu and Celebes Seas in the south, the Pacific Ocean to its east, and the South China Sea to its west. The Philippines has a tropical climate with an average temperature range of 23° to 32°C. Populated by 88 million people, the country has a total land area of 3,00,000 square kilometers  (30 million hectares); where about one third is agricultural land (NSO, 2007).

Of the agricultural land, 31 per cent is used for cereals such as corn and rice, 52 per cent for food crops and 17 per cent for non-food crops (ITC, 2007). Majority of these are cultivated on small farms averaging about two hectares and are managed by single families ranging from subsistence to commercial production (NSCB, 2007).

Abstract: Phlox, garden annual, is used as an ideal crop for cytogenetical study. The modern cultivars are grown for ground cover in beds, borders, rock gardens or as edging in landscaping. Phlox taxa serve as a model for speciation through hybridization and contribute to domestication of wild species through interspecific hybridization which revitalized the crop. Limited fertility, reproductive barriers, germination challenges, low seed set often pose significant challenges to breeders. The increasing knowledge of the inheritance of traits and molecular genetic techniques are valuable tools aiding modern phlox breeders. Breeding objectives with high priority include dwarf stature, novel forms, winter hardiness and disease resistance.

Phlox is a perennial and annual flowering plant belongs to family Polemoniaceae. “Phlox” is a Greek word meaning “flame” and was most likely named thusly due to its bright and vivid colours. Phlox originally came from North America and was available in England by the early 1800s. It quickly grew in popularity and today it is still found growing wild in gardens across the world. Among perennials, Phlox paniculata, Phlox divariecata, Phlox glaberrima are earliest species to be cultivated and reached to England and France from Virginia (USA) in the early 18^th century. Among annuals, Phlox drummondii is commonly grown in India. Annual phlox is propagated by seeds, whereas, cutting is used as propagating material for perennial species. Phlox is grown in the garden as bedding and border plant for its dramatic, fragrant, showy and long blooming flowers. The colour range includes white, rose, pink, purple, lavender, violet, pale blue, bright red and magenta. Some flowers are bicoloured.

ORIGIN AND DISTRIBUTION

Phlox is native to North America except one species i.e. Phlox sibirica which originated from Siberia (Meyer, 1944). They are found mostly in North America in diverse habitats from alpine Tundra to open woodland and prairie. Some flower in spring, others in summer and fall. Many are fragrant.

The diversity of species and genera is particularly high in California, USA, where 17 genera and over 170 species occur. Significant diversity also exists elsewhere in the world. A principle lineage consisting of Cantua, Cobaea, and Bonplandia is distributed natively only in Mexico, central America and northwestern South America. In Eastern North America, the genus Phlox is unusually diverse compared to the rest of the family. Other than members of Phlox, only a few species occur natively east of the Mississippi river in the United States, such as Ipomopsis rubra, Collomia linearis and a few Polemonium. A few Phlox and Polemonium species are also found natively in Eurasia. Central and South America, particularly the western regions of South America, are also home to some members of the phlox family. A small number of species from several genera that are most abundant in North America, such as Collomia, Gilia, Navarretia and Leptosiphon are found only in western South America, indicating multiple instances of long distance dispersal (Grant, 1959 and Morrell et al., 2000). Occasional species, such as skunkweed (Navarretia squarrosa) and Collomia grandiflora, have become weedy in parts of Europe and Australia and some cultivated species, such as members of Cobaea, have become naturalized outside their native range (Grant, 1959, Hussey et al., 1997, Pysek et al., 2002 and Anon., 2003).

Phlox is a perennial and annual flowering plant belongs to family Polemoniaceae. “Phlox” is a Greek word meaning “flame” and was most likely named thusly due to its bright and vivid colours. Phlox originally came from North America and was available in England by the early 1800s. It quickly grew in popularity and today it is still found growing wild in gardens across the world. Among perennials, Phlox paniculata, Phlox divariecata, Phlox glaberrima are earliest species to be cultivated and reached to England and France from Virginia (USA) in the early 18th century. Among annuals, Phlox drummondii is commonly grown in India. Annual phlox is propagated by seeds, whereas, cutting is used as propagating material for perennial species. Phlox is grown in the garden as bedding and border plant for its dramatic, fragrant, showy and long blooming flowers. The colour range includes white, rose, pink, purple, lavender, violet, pale blue, bright red and magenta. Some flowers are bicoloured.

1.0. Objectives

• To impart knowledge of Phonetic and phonology and the significance of its taching and learning
• To make understand how sounds of the alphabets are made and perceived
• To demonstrate the use of the phonetics material

2.0 Introduction to Phonetics

Phonetics is a branch of Linguistics. It is a word derived from the Greek word, phone= sound/ voice. It is the study of sounds and the human voice.

Phonology is the study of sound patterns of a particular language.

Acid and alkaline phosphatase enzymes are among the extensively studied phosphatases and classified so because of their optimum activities in acid and alkaline pH ranges, respectively. Acid phosphatase is predominant in acid soil while alkaline phosphatase is dominant in alkaline soils. The colorimetric assay of phosphatase is based on release of p-nitrophenol from hydrolysis of p-nitrophenyl phosphate byaction of phosphatase enzyme in buffered soil solution (buffer pH 6.5 for acid and 11 for alkaline phosphatase assay).

ABSTRACT

Phosphorus is a macro nutrient, acts as a limiting factor in most ecosystems. Phosphorus immobilization is a major issue in most agricultural soils of India. Phosphate Solubilizing Bacteria (PSB) help in the solubilization of insoluble mineral phosphates by the production of organic acids. The aim of this research was to isolate, identify and characterize phosphate solubilizing bacteria from different agricultural crop soils of river banks of Yamuna, Delhi. Experiments were established in the laboratory to isolate phosphate solubilizing bacteria from various soil samples. Biochemical tests were performed to identify and characterize phosphate solubilizing bacteria. The phosphate solubilization efficiency of bacteria was measured. Organic acid production by different PSB for solubilization of insoluble phosphates were estimated. PSB from the soils of four agricultural crops such as Fennel, Spinach, Coriander and Mustard were isolated, identified and their ability to solubilize mineral phosphates by the production of organic acids were studied. Different PSB isolated were characterized as Citrobacter sp., Pseudomonas sp., Staphylococcus sp. and Bacillus sp. The PSB varied in phosphate solubilizing efficiency and production of organic acids. Pseudomonas sp. produced the maximum amount of organic acids and hence was the most efficient PSB. These PSB can be used as biofertilizers instead of chemical fertilizers and lead to sustainable agriculture.

Introduction

Increased population pressure, reduced length of fallow, deforestation and improper agricultural practices have led to widespread soil degradation in many parts of the developing world which has culminated in appearance of determinative manifestations of environmental damage in form of inadequate replenishment of soil nutrients and organic matter. Phosphorus is second major plant growth limiting nutrient and despite being in abundance in soil (organic and inorganic form), P deficiency is becoming critical in many soils throughout world as these soils have free available P concentration (generally) not higher than 10mM even at most soluble slight acidic pH (Arnou, 1953). Moreover, consistent P deficiency threatens to disturb the use efficiency of applying other nutrients. Hence to preserve the sustainability of agriculture it is foremost to rebuild soil fertility and maintain/improve the soil biodiversity to reap hiked current levels of productivity and farm income.