eChapters

9.1 INTRODUCTION

Establishment of an orchard incurs long term investment for which it needs a very critical planning. As it is a long-term investment, plants planted in the orchard should suit to the prevailing climatic condition of that area. The land remains occupied as long as 40 to 50 years. Any mistake committed during initial year is hard to rectify later on. Proper layout of the orchard ensures optimum utilisation of land and resources for successive economic production. It becomes easy for different inter-cultural operations, harvesting and transportation of the produces. Uniform distribution of plants in the selected land in various systems of planting is done after proper layout.

9.2 LAYOUT

The proper layout of orchard aims at accommodating maximum number of trees per unit land area, maintaining adequate space for proper development of the trees and convenient orchard management practices.

Paratition Value

Median is calculated for dividing the series into two equal parts. If the series is divided into four, eight, ten or hundred parts then the measures are called Quartile, Octile, Decile and Percentile respectively denoted by Q_(1,2,3), O_(1,2..7), D_(1,2…9) and P_(1,2…99).

Soils vary greatly in their organic matter content. For all practical purposes the organic matter content of the soil parallels the soil N content. The C/N ratio of soil organic matter generally falls in the range of 10 to 12. Because of the ease with which Kjeldahl determination can be made, N is often used as an index of soil organic matter content.

3.1. Composition of Organic Matter in Soil

Organic matter constitutes 1 to 6% of the topsoil weight of most upland soils. In a typical grassland soil, 5 to 6% of organic matter may be present in the top 15 cm. Top soils with less than 1% organic matter are mostly limited to desert regions. On the contrary, the organic matter content of soils in low, wet areas may be as high as 90% or even more. Soils with more than 12 - 18% organic carbon (approximately 20 - 30% organic matter) are called organic soils.

INTRODUCTION

India is rich in biodiversity and possesses about 108276 species of insects. Indian subcontinent is one of the mega biodiversity countries of the world occupying ninth position in terms of freshwater mega biodiversity (Mittermeier et al., 1997) comprising 30 order (Dijkstra et al. 2013). Inland wetlands of India serve as the habitat for more than 500 species of aquatic insects which are represented predominantly by Ephemeroptera (mayflies), Odonata (dragonflies) and Trichoptera (caddisflies), (Subramanian and Sivaramakrishnan, 2007). Aquatic insects play important ecological roles in keeping freshwater ecosystems functioning properly (Choudhary and Janak, 2015). The aquatic insects are important part of aquatic ecosystem which play vital role in ecosystem functioning and are known to be representative of structure and function of freshwater ecosystem due to their high abundance, high birthrate with short generation time, large and rapid colonization (Choudhary and Ahi 2015). Aquatic insect function on multiple trophic level such as shredders, collectors, scraper and predators on animal debris, wood and leaf litter reaching the wetland from the surrounding landscape. Nutrients processed by aquatic insects are further degraded into absorbable form by fungal and bacterial action. Plants in the riparian zone absorb this nutrient soup transported through the wetlands. In addition to this significant ecosystem function, aquatic insects are also a primary source of food for fishes and amphibians (Tachet et al., 2003 ; Kumar, 2014).They interact in nutrient cycling within lentic and lotic systems and are regarded as an effective bioindicator (Lundquist and Zhu 2018) and serve as an important component of natural foodweb in aquatic ecosystem. However, the aquatic insect fauna of this part in India is inadequately documented. Therefore, present study carried out to delineate the baseline status of aquatic insects of Anandwan lakes at Warora Dist: Chandrapur.

The agriculture sector faces significant challenges in mitigating the detrimental impacts of pests and diseases on crop yield and quality. Traditional methods of pest and disease management often fall short in providing timely and precise interventions, leading to substantial economic losses and environmental consequences. In recent years, the integration of geo-spatial technology has emerged as a promising approach to address these challenges by enabling more accurate monitoring, prediction, and management of pests and diseases.

The integration of geo-spatial technology in pest and disease management within agricultural practices represents a significant stride towards precision agriculture. This chapter delves into the innovative application of geospatial tools in identifying, monitoring, and mitigating pests and diseases, thereby optimizing crop yield and quality while minimizing environmental impact. Beginning with an overview of the challenges posed by pests and diseases in agriculture, the chapter highlights the limitations of traditional methods in effectively addressing these issues. It then explores how geo- spatial technology, encompassing Geographic Information Systems (GIS), remote sensing, and global positioning systems (GPS), revolutionizes pest and disease management by providing real-time, spatially explicit data. The discussion extends to the utilization of satellite imagery and aerial drones for early detection and monitoring of pest infestations and disease outbreaks. Through case studies and examples, the efficacy of geo-spatial technology in mapping pest distribution patterns, predicting outbreaks, and implementing targeted interventions is elucidated.

When a plant is unable to perform its functions normally, then it is diseased. The two major causes of disease in crops and trees are pathogens and environmental conditions. There are many kinds of disease pathogens: viruses, bacteria, fungi, nematodes, mycoplasma-like organisms, and parasitic higher plants. Fungal pathogens are the most common type. They cause seed rots, seedling damping-off, root rots, foliage diseases, cankers, vascular wilts, diebacks, galls and tumors, trunk rots, and decay of aging trees. Deterrents to establishment include unfavourable weather and environmental conditions such as Temperature and moisture extremes, high winds and ice may directly injure a tree and predispose the trees to pest attack.
Biodiversity plays multiple roles in development as well as ecological sustainability. It has received increased attention in agricultural ecosystems for the past few years regarding the reduction of plant diseases; however, the knowledge of using biodiversity to manage plant diseases is Still incomplete. For crop diversification, the interaction of genetic diversity per se in host populations with identifiable resistance and other functional traits of component genotypes to mitigate disease epidemics is not well understood, and neither is the best way of structuring mixed populations. The mixing of crop varieties can significantly reduce disease epidemics in the field. To achieve the best disease mitigation, growers should include as many varieties as possible in mixtures or, if only two component mixtures are possible. The many strategies, tactics, and techniques used in disease management can be grouped under very broad principles of action. The differences between these principles are often not clear. The simplest system consists of two principles, prevention (prophylaxis in some early writings) and therapy (treatment or cure). The first principle (prevention) has to do with disease management practices applied before infection-that is, the plant is protected from disease.

Chlamydiae are obligate intracellular bacteria with an unusual developmental cycle during which unique infectious forms are produced. They replicate within cytoplasmic vacuoles in host cells. On account of their apparent inability to generate ATP, with resultant dependence on host cell metabolism, they have been termed ‘energy parasites’.
The family Chlamydiaceae belongs to the order Chlamydiales. Currently two genera, Chlamydia and Chlamydophila, and nine species are described. Formerly a single genus and four species, Chlamydia trachomatis, C. psittaci, C. pneumoniae and C. pecorum, were recognised. This classification was based on phenotypic characteristics such as host preference, inclusion morphology, iodine staining for the presence of glycogen, and sulphonamide susceptibility. However, recent nucleic acid sequencing studies of the 16s and 23s rRNA genes confirm two distinct lineages.
In the developmental cycle of chlamydiae, infectious and reproductive forms are morphologically distinct. Infectious extracellular forms, called elementary bodies (EBs) are small (200 to 300 nm), metabolically inert and osmotically stable. Each EB is surrounded by a conventional bacterial cytoplasmic membrane, a periplasmic space and an outer envelope containing lipopolysaccharide.
The periplasmic space does not contain a detectable peptidoglycan layer and the EB relies on disulphide cross-linked envelope proteins for osmotic stability. Elementary bodies enter host cells by receptor-mediated endocytosis. Acidification of the endosome and fusion with lysosomes are prevented by mechanisms which are not fully understood. A process of structural reorganization within the pathogen, of several hours duration, results in the conversion of an EB into a reticulate body (RB). The RB, about 1 μm in diameter, is metabolically active, osmotically fragile and replicates by binary fission within the endosome. The endosome and its contents, when stained, is called an inclusion. When a number of inclusions containing RBs of C.trachomatis are formed in an infected cell, fusion of these structures may
occur.

1. Introduction

India has a rich tradition of plant-based knowledge on healthcare. It is reported that traditional healers use 2500 plant species and 100 species of plants serve as regular sources of medicine (Pei, 2001). Traditional medical knowledge of medicinal plants and their use by indigenous cultures are not only useful for conservation of cultural traditions and biodiversity but also for community healthcare and drug development in the present and future. Medicinal plants have curative properties due to the presence of various complex chemical substances of different composition which are formed as secondary plant metabolites in various parts of the plants such as roots, shrubs, leaves, flowers etc. (Gurib-Fakim, 2006).

A large number of plants are equally used by tribals and folklore traditions in India for treatment of cuts, wounds and burns (Biswas and Mukherjee, 2003). A wound is a type of injury in which skin is torn, cut or punctured, that disturbance in the normal skin anatomy and function. Wound healing consists of orderly progression of series of events that establish the integrity of damaged tissue and thereby the affected parts repair itself after injury. The wound healing herbs encourage blood clotting and induce the healing of wounds (Sudhakar et al., 2003; Nagori and Solanki, 2011; Binu Thomas et al., 2012).

8.1. Major Obstacle to Nigeria Economic Growth

In Nigeria, high transport prices are rightly seen as a major obstacle to economic growth of the region. This has been documented in several studies. One of them (Amjadi and Yeats, 1995) even concluded that, in Nigeria, transport costs are a higher trade barrier than import tariffs and trade restrictions. In this paper, it is analyzed, identified and quantified the factors behind Nigeria’s high prices of road transport, with the purpose of helping policy-makers adopt appropriate actions to reduce transport prices to domestic and international trade. Before the presentation of the results, a distinction has to be made between logistics costs, transport prices, transport costs and vehicle operating costs in order to avoid the usual confusion. This distinction is useful because prices may or may not reflect transport cost:

Maturity indices and their adoption at harvesting and in post harvest management of fruits provide a information against quality loss, microbial decay and deterioration of external appeal. Fruit harvesting at proper stage of maturity has direct effect on quality and market value of produce. Stage of harvesting also influence the after harvest enzymatic activities of the horticultural produce, which determines the levels of different pigments, sugars, acids and vitamins in fruits, flowers and vegetables. Maturity can be described as the attainment of a particular size, stage after which ripening takes place. However, horticultural maturity is defined as the stage of development when a plant or plant part possess the prerequisites for utilization by consumers for a particular purpose. Cucumbers, lettuce and peppers are harvested at various stages (Horticultural maturity) prior to reaching physiological maturity, or completion of growth phase.

There are many methods to determine produce maturity. The most common is the size of the individual commodity.Some other commonly used crude methods are colour change, Softening of the tissues (fig,sapota) ease of detachment from the stalk (Sapota, annona), shrivelling of fruit stalk (water melon), time elapsed from the date of flowering to picking maturity, sound by tapping jack and water melon when ripe produce hollow and dull sound on tapping but produce metallic sound if unripe etc. Another physical characteristic is the firmness and it is determined with a pressure tester. Firmness is often correlated with chemical changes that occur during ripening. Chemical characteristics include TSS, acidity, sugar, vitamins and pigments. There are certain test which accurately gives the maturity measurements such as use of colour charts (judge colour), penetrometers (firmness), brix: acid ratio etc. Other recent methods viz. thermal conductivity X-rays and NIR have also come in practice to judge the maturity of fruits and vegetables. Some commonly use maturity indices are given below in some of the important fruits.

The disease attacks all the growth stages of plant affecting all above-ground parts. Plant covered with powdery patches leads to distortion, malformation and discolouration of leaves especially young leaves. Powdery patches gradually turn to grey and fi nally dark colour. Affected fl ower fails to develop fruit. Young berries turn black, irregular in shape and develop cracks. Sometimes berries ripe partially and rot. Vines get wilted.

Introduction

A microscope is an optical instrument consisting of a lens or a combination of lenses for making magnified images of minute objects. A simple microscope consists of a single lens of magnified glass held in a frame, usually adjustable and has a stand for holding the object and a mirror for reflecting the light. But a compound microscope consists of two lenses i.e., objective and eye piece respectively. A compound microscope gives much greater magnification than simple microscope. The compound microscope will be extensively used in this course in studying various morphological and staining characters of soil microorganisms.

The domestic electric food juicer/mixer/grinder has become an integral fixture in the typical modern kitchen. Generally functional as liquidizers, grinders and juicers, this paraphernalia comes in handy for grinding/pulverizing/powdering dry foodstuffs either raw or roasted (cereals, grains, masalas, coffee seeds, etc.), for mixing liquids and for converting food— with or without the presence of water (or vegetable oils)—into forms of slurry or pulps. It is also used for extracting juice from fruits or vegetables.

The term biodiversity is abbreviated from two different terms ‘biological’ and ‘diversity’. Biodiversity is also called biological diversity. The term biological diversity was first coined by wildlife scientist and conservationist Raymond F. Dasmann in 1968. The same term i.e. natural heritage was used in the United State. Geneticists describe it as the diversity of genes and organisms. Biologists define biodiversity as the sum of genes, species and ecosystems of a region.

Biodiversity is determined by the wholesome number of different species in a particular area. It helps to strengthen the stability of an ecosystem and leads to a healthy biosphere. Existence of biodiversity is crucial for the functioning of the ecosystem and is the foundation of life on earth as it generates products and services for the existence of all living organisms on the earth.

The thermal range ideal for poultry rearing is 130C to 240C and is known as thermo neutral zone. Any temperature on either side of this zone falls in the critical range (240C-380C and 0-130C) and is detrimental to birds. Heat stress (HS) happens when the amount of heat produced by a bird exceeds the bird’s capability to dissipate the heat from the body to its surrounding environment both by sensible and insensible heat loss. The imbalance between heat production and dissipation result due to variations in a combination of various factors viz. sunlight, temperature of the air, humidity etc. and individual variations at bird level viz. sex, breed, species and physiological status (Lara and Rostagno, 2013). During heat stress, the birds reduce their heat production by decreased feed intake and increased water consumption.

20.1 Introduction

Physiological adaptations for air-breathing in bony fishes have fascinated researchers for well over a century. The metabolic rate of some fish is so high that dissolved oxygen in water becomes insufficient. Prolonged drought causes some f ish to develop devices to survive in the absence of water for a short period. To overcome these challenges, fishes have developed accessory respiratory organs that can function in both aquatic and aerial environments.

As an adaptation to specific environmental conditions, accessory respiratory organs develop in addition to the gills. The development of these organs is dependent on the availability of extra oxygen. The development of an accessory respiratory organ is most common in tropical freshwater fishes.

Significant Progress and Prospects

It is widely acknowledged that biofortification presents a promising and cost effective agricultural strategy to enhance the nutritional status of malnourished populations globally. Approaches to biofortification, including crop breeding, targeted genetic modification, and mineral fertilizer application, offer significant potential for combatting mineral deficiencies in human diets. The development of biofortified food crops with enhanced nutrient content such as iron, zinc, selenium, and provitamin A has shown promise in addressing micronutrient deficiencies prevalent in both developing and developed nations. Over the past decade, both national and international initiatives have made substantial contributions toward achieving these goals. These efforts have resulted in the release of biofortified varieties across various crops, including rice, maize, wheat, potatoes, vegetables, and millets. The majority of these varieties have been developed through conventional breeding methods without sacrificing crop yield, making them readily accepted by both growers and consumers.

One of the United Nations’ sustainable development goals is the cultivation of nutritionally rich crop varieties with heightened levels of micronutrients such as iron, zinc, calcium, total protein, lysine, tryptophan, anthocyanin, provitamin A, and oleic acid, coupled with reduced levels of anti-nutritional factors. In the past decade, 142 biofortified varieties, spanning rice, wheat, maize, pearl millet, small millet, lentil, chickpea, and other crops, have been developed under the auspices of the Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR). Biofortified varieties typically do not impact ecological conditions, soil, or water requirements differently from traditional varieties. Additionally, they do not incur extra cultivation costs, and their economic output is comparable to traditional produce, leading to their widespread adoption. In India, the scale-up of biofortified varieties has gained momentum, with substantial quantities of breeder seeds being produced and distributed to public and private seed agencies for further multiplication and dissemination to farmers. Over the past six years, approximately 10 million hectares of land have been cultivated with biofortified rice, wheat, pearl millet, mustard, and lentil varieties.

What is dispersion?

In statistics, dispersion (also called variability, scatter, or spread) is the extent to which a distribution is stretched or squeezed. Common examples of measures of statistical dispersion are the variance, standard deviation, and interquartile range. For instance, when the variance of data in a set is large, the data is widely scattered. On the other hand, when the variance is small, the data in the set is clustered.

Dispersion is contrasted with location or central tendency, and together they are the most used properties of distributions.

Measure of dispersion

(a) Range

The range is defined as the difference between the largest and smallest observations. Range(X)= Max(X)- Min (X)

Example

The range in statistics for a given data set is the difference between the highest and lowest values. For example, if the given data set is {2,5,8,10,3}, then the range will be 10 – 2 = 8. Thus, the range could also be defined as the difference between the highest observation and lowest observation.

Labeled: Equipment or materials to which has been attached a label, symbol or other identifying mark of an organization acceptable to the “authority having jurisdiction” and concerned with product evaluation, that maintains periodic inspection of production of labeled equipment or materials and by whose labeling the manufacturer indicates compliance with appropriate standards or performance in a specified manner.

Laboratory: A place where scientific tests, experiments, analysis, etc., are carried on.

Ladder: An aid to climbing. Usually made of two parallel uprights connected by regularly spaced rungs.

Ladle: Receptacle used for taking the molten metal from the cupola, in transporting it, and in pouring it into the molds. Ladles are of various shapes and sizes with capacities from 25 pounds to 100 tons.

Brooding and Rearing Practices Used for Chicken

What is Brooding?

Rearing of young ones immediately after hatching for at least 2-3 weeks, either by natural means or by artificial method is called brooding. Brooding is done by two ways i.e., Natural or Artificial ways.

Natural Brooding

In the natural method a desi fowl which acts both as incubator and brooder is used to raise only a small number of chicks. She sits on eggs (chicken) for 21 days to produce chicks from fertile eggs and broods thereafter.