eChapters

4.1 Introduction

Water pollution is the contamination of water by an excess amount of a substance that can cause harm to human beings and/or the ecosystem. The level of water pollution depends on the abundance of the pollutant, the ecological impact of the pollutant, and the use of the water. Pollutants are derived from biological, chemical, or physical processes. Although natural processes such as volcanic eruptions or evaporation sometimes can cause water pollution, most pollution is derived from human, land-based activities (Figure 4.2). Water pollutants can move through different water reservoirs, as the water carrying them progresses through stages of the water cycle (Figure 4.1). Water residence time (the average time that a water molecule spends in a water reservoir) is very important to pollution problems because it affects pollution potential. Water in rivers has a relatively short residence time, so pollution usually is there only briefly. Of course, pollution in rivers may simply move to another reservoir, such as the ocean, where it can cause further problems. Groundwater is typically characterized by slow flow and longer residence time, which can make groundwater pollution particularly problematic. Finally, pollution residence time can be much greater than the water residence time because a pollutant may be taken up for a long time within the ecosystem or absorbed onto sediment.

India is the second largest producer of fruits and vegetables. The area under fruits alone is 32.05 lakh hectares with a production of 329.55 lakh tones. Jammu and Kashmir is the most important horticultural state with unique temperate fruit and European type of vegetable crop production. The total area during 2005-06 under the fruit crops in the state was 2.83 lakh hectares with a production of 1504.01 thousand metric tones (Table 1). Almost 45 per cent of economic returns under agriculture sector are contributed by horticulture, thereby adding 7 per cent to the Gross State Domestic Product (Anonymous, 2007). Among the fresh and dry fruits, apple and walnut, respectively, are the most important fruit crops in the Jammu and Kashmir. However, there is a wide gap between the present yield and the potential yield of fruits. One of the limiting factors for this gap in fruit production is severe attack of arthropod pests and diseases affecting yield and quality. Unlike agricultural crops, horticultural crops are grown as perennial monocultures, therefore, harbor the insect pest and disease problems that are entirely different and complex in nature. These two factors impose huge losses upon horticulture in terms of alleviated production, reduced quality and cost of management.

Introduction

Although the concept of IPM, with emphasis on minimum use of pesticides; is well established and widely practiced in India pest population still continue to be unabated, often reaching to alarming levels. Out breaks of Spodoptera litura and hairy caterpillar, Amsacta moorei have been recorded in soybean and kharif crops recently during 2002 & 2004 in Madhya Pradesh and Rajasthan, respectively. Outbreaks of Helicoverpa armigera populations are well known, appearing more frequently since past few years (1987-88, 1995-96, 1997-98 & 2001) doing extensive damage in cotton and pulses. in many parts of the country. Failures in controlling these populations, even by most potent insecticides, have raised a serious doubt on the success of present day pest management practices aimed to kill the pest in immature larval / egg stage, when infestation spreads out in large areas. Insecticidal treatments require wide coverage of crop area to control them effectively. Insecticide resistance in pest species and destruction of natural enemies are obvious problems, since chemicals are applied indiscriminately to entire crop ecosystem including the non-target beneficial bicontrol species. How to minimize use of insecticide in pest control is often a question of major concern to the entomologists.

Starter cultures were unknown until 1878, when Lister isolated pure cultures of the lactic acid bacteria responsible for milk acidification. In the 1980s, improvements to standardization and ripening of butter were made by introducing pure starter cultures. During the period 1910-20, Orla-Jensen, von Freudenreich, Sherman, Hammer and other dairy microbiologists prepared pure cultures for fermented milks. Commercial production and use of starter cultures grew rapidly and was widespread at the beginning of the 20^th century.

Dairy starters are the ‘heart’ of fermented milk products, the most crucial component in the manufacture of high-quality fermented milks. The cultures are harmless food-grade microorganisms, active bacteria intentionally grown in milk or whey or other formulated media which impart desirable and predictable flavour and texture to fermented dairy products.

The dairy microorganisms employed in milk fermentation are single-strain or multiple-strain cultures of lactic acid bacteria, producing different types of fermented milk products. Usually, one or two strains dominate the milk environment. Individual strains can be selected in advance for their resistance to both bacteriophages and antibiotics. Mixed starter cultures are used to ensure that fermentation will continue after a bacteriophage attack. Bacteriophages are highly strain-specific, and if the dominant strain in a mixed-strain starter culture succumbs to an attack, the phage-resistant mutant or the next dominant culture maintains a satisfactory rate of lactic acid production.

Fourth-generation biofuels, also known as advanced liquid biofuels, represent a progression of biofuel production leveraging advanced technologies (Chiaramonti & Maniatis, 2020). They incorporate the concept of “carbon capture and storage (CCS)” at both the feedstock and processing levels. Utilizing non-competitive feedstocks like algal biomass, cellulosic materials, and genetically engineered microorganisms, 4G biofuels ensure renewable and sustainable production without relying on arable land or food crops. The feedstock is designed not only to enhance processing efficiency but also to capture more carbon dioxide as the crop grows. Thermochemical processing methods are coupled with CCS technologies, which direct the generated carbon dioxide into geological formations or storage areas such as depleted oil fields or mineral storage as carbonates (International Renewable Energy Agency [IRENA], 2021). Fourth-generation biofuels have the potential to significantly reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and can even achieve carbon neutrality or negativity compared to previous generations of biofuels. This concept aligns with the idea of “Bioenergy with Carbon Storage (BECS)” (Demirbas, 2010). These advanced biofuels are currently in the development and experimental stages, encompassing various applications related to technology, processing, and feedstock. The primary feedstock for fourth-generation biofuels production consists of genetically engineered high-yielding biomass with low lignin and cellulose contents, addressing the challenges encountered in second-generation biofuels production. Alternatively, metabolically engineered crop plants with lower lignin, high oil contents facilitate enhanced carbon capture capabilities, and improved cultivation, harvesting, and fermentation processes and can significantly enhance biofuels production (Dutta et al., 2014).

Composting explains the biological decomposition of organic materials and its importance for soil fertility, nutrient recycling, and sustainable farm management. The chapter introduces stages and types of composting, including anaerobic, aerobic, and vermicomposting systems, and discusses physical, chemical, biological, economic, and social benefits. Major methods such as Indore, Coimbatore, Bangalore, NADEP, sugarcane trash composting, fermented mixed compost, and crop-residue composting are presented. Factors affecting decomposition, including carbon-to-nitrogen ratio, shredding, moisture, and temperature, are examined. The chapter concludes with vermicomposting, earthworm roles, materials, preparation, developmental phases, and essential conditions required for effective vermicompost production. with emphasis on practical farm-level management practice systems.

Introduction

Phosphorus (P) is a major nutrient in crop production, but is also a major constraint due to its low bioavailability in soils. It is 11th most abundant element on earth’s crust and a  vital component of DNA, RNA, ATP and photosynthetic system and catalyses a number of biochemical reactions from the beginning of seedling growth through to the formation of grain and maturity. Many factors influence soil P availability like type of parent material from which the soil is derived, degree of weathering and climatic conditions.

Gerbera (Gerbera jamesonii), a tender, stemless, perennial flowering plant, belongs to family Asteraceae. Gerbera was named in honour of the German botanist and naturalist “Traugott Gerber” who was a friend of Carolus Linnaeus. Gerbera is very popular and widely used as cut flower or as a decorative garden plant. It was discovered in 1878 near Barberton, eastern Transvaal (South Africa), therefore, referred as the Barberton daisy or Transvaal daisy. It is ideal for beds, borders and pots and is the fifth most important cut flower in the world.

ORIGIN AND DISTRIBUTION

Gerbera is originated from South Africa. The native distribution of genus Gerbera comprising 30 species, extends to Africa, Madagascar, tropical Asia and South America (Hansen, 1985 and Bremer, 1994). Whereas, it was also reported that gerbera is found in the temperate and tropical parts of Asia and Africa and about 7 species are recorded in India. This plant is distributed in the temperate Himalayas from Kashmir to Nepal. Gerbera is commonly seen on the dry slopes near Shimla and on hillsides above Gulmarg in Kashmir (Anon., 1956). The G. jamesonii is found naturally in grassland in sandy soils in Mpumalanga and Barberton district. The genus Gerbera has approximately 14 southern African species, some of which are found only in Western Cape. G. aurantica is endemic to the mist belt grassland region of KwaZulu-Natal and is known from approximately 9 scattered populations from Helahela in the south to Babanango in the north. This species is under threat of extinction due to habitat fragmentation and degradation. In India they are distributed in temperate Himalayas at altitudes of 1300-3200 metres and observed from Kashmir to Nepal.

The genus Gerbera is named in honour of German naturalist Traugott Gerber who travelled in Russia in 1743 and started first botanical garden in Moscow. However, for species i.e. jamesonii, it is a matter of different opinion. The jamesonii was named for Dr. L. S. Jameson, a British colonial statesman in South Africa who was one of the discoverers of this species, whereas in some literature, the species was named after Robert Jameson who collected live specimens while on a prospecting expedition to the Barberton district in 1884, even though the species collected on three earlier occasions by other people. In 1888, Medley Wood, the curator of the Durban Botanical Garden sent plants to Kew, which subsequently flowered. This is native to South Africa, Madagascar, Asia, South America and Indonesia.

The first official description of South African species G. jamesonii was made by J.D. Hooker in Curtis Botanical magazine with coloured illustration in 1889. An active society on this subject is to be found in Australia under the name W.A. Gerbera Society. The society has used a classification system of gerbera. The breeding of gerbera started at the end of the nineteenth century in Cambridge, England, when two South African sp. were crossed. G. jamesonii native to Natal and Transvaal and G. viridifolia from western Cape were crossed together by R. Irwin Lynch in 1887, after both these species were introduced to Cambridge Botanic Gardens by Jameson and the hybrid was named as G. x cantabrigensis.

In recent times, the interpretations cover a wide spectrum of soil uses, both for agricultural and non agricultural (sewage and human waste disposal, high way construction, water and gas supply, recreation, wild life, urban and industrial structures) and many specialized uses. Soil survey if correctly carried out according to scientific principles, can provide the data base for various interpretations. This is because the same soil properties determine the behaviour of a soil for a variety of different uses. For instance, the content of clay, silt and sand, the shrink and swell behaviour, the permeability of soil to water and air, content of calcium carbonate, salts, organic matter, gypsum, soil depth, depth of ground water, hard pan formation, co-efficient of linear extensibility, water holding capacity etc. are examples of such properties that are important to plant growth and these properties also strongly influence non farm uses. Some examples in support are

A hard or petrocalcic horizon or other slowly permeable layer (clay-pan) in a soil restricts the movement of air and water, thus adversely affecting the plant root growth. Such a layer limits the soils suitability for septic tanks and other onsite waste disposal. It also makes a poor sub grade for high way construction.

A soil high in soluble salts is a poor medium for plant growth; it is also corrosive to iron and steel structures, such as pipelines and fences, causing high maintenance and repair costs.

High organic matter content is generally favourable to plant growth, but it is a limitation for road construction.

The strongly gypsiferous soils (gypsum content >10%) are considered unsuitable for arable crop cultivation because of its dissolution under irrigated or even moderate rainfall and making the surfaces uneven through the developments of sink holes. Such soils are unsuitable for irrigation and drainage canal networks and also for construction of roads, bridges etc.

The shrink- swell soils of India (vertisols) because of summer monsoon rains are suitable for growing a “kharif” crop but are very dangerous for construction of roads, air strips, buildings, laying gas, water pipelines which get distorted, develop cracks and lead to sunken floors etc.

Leafy vegetables are the herbs that are grown for their edible greens (leaves). Leafy vegetables are also called pot-herbs, greens, vegetable greens, and leafy greens are plant leaves eaten as a vegetable, sometimes accompanied by tender petioles and shoots. They come from a very wide variety of plants. As per Singh and Arora (1978), about 220 species belonging to the families, Amaranthaceae, Chenopodiaceae, Araceae, Asteraceae, Convolvulaceae, Malvaceae, Nymphalaceae, Papilionaceae etc. occur in India.

Introduction
Aquaculture has emerged as the fastest-growing sector in global agriculture. The total fish production worldwide includes both wild catches and aquaculture outputs. In recent years, fish production has consistently risen, reaching around 130.9 million tons, which accounts for 52% of the fish available for human consumption (FAO, 2024). Molecular breeding in fisheries and aquaculture utilizes cutting-edge genetic technologies to enhance favourable traits in aquatic species. This approach encompasses the application of molecular markers, genome-wide association studies (GWAS), and gene editing techniques to improve attributes such as growth rates, disease resistance, and resilience to environmental stressors. For example, marker-assisted selection (MAS) facilitates the identification and selection of superior broodstock by leveraging genetic markers associated with advantageous traits.

Leafy vegetables are the herbs that are grown for their edible greens (leaves). Leafy vegetables are also called pot-herbs, greens, vegetable greens, and leafy greens are plant leaves eaten as a vegetable, sometimes accompanied by tender petioles and shoots. They come from a very wide variety of plants. As per Singh and Arora (1978), about 220 species belonging to the families, Amaranthaceae, Chenopodiaceae, Araceae, Asteraceae, Convolvulaceae, Malvaceae, Nymphalaceae, Papilionaceae etc. occur in India. Although most of them are grown wild, a few are regularly cultivated and consumed as cooked vegetables.

The fungi are usually:

a) Parasites or saprophytes b) Lithophytes

c) Epiphytes d) Insectivorous

Identify and Describe Program You Want to Evaluate

The first step in conducting a program evaluation is to clarify why we are doing it, what we want to achieve, and what we will focus on. This will help us to define the evaluation questions, criteria, indicators and methods that will guide our data collection and analysis.

What is Program Evaluation?

Heliconia belongs to family Heliconiaceae is popular as ornamental plants and cut flowers because of their brilliant colours and exotic appearance. The genus name “Heliconia” is derived from “Helicon”, a mountain in southern Greece regarded by the ancient Greeks as the home of the Muses, thus suggesting the relationship between these plants and the bananas, genus Musa (Berry and Kress, 1991). Unique features of the Heliconiaceae are (1) medium to large erect herbs rising from underground rhizomes;(2) each erect shoot is composed of a stem and leaves, whereas the stem is made up of an axis covered by overlapping sheathing leaf bases, technically called a pseudostem;(3) inverted flowers and (4) the presence of a single staminode. Heliconia has long been popular horticulturally because of their showy inflorescences. It was so attractive that early explorers of the tropics returned to Europe with several species that became prized green house specimens. Heliconia, grown in nearly all of the tropical regions of the world, including Africa and Asia. In India, heliconia is grown in North-East region and Kerala.

ORIGIN AND DISTRIBUTION

Heliconias are native only to Central and South America and some of the islands of the South Pacific, for horticultural and commercial popularity. Berry and Kress (1991) stated that they are native from Tropical America and found at different altitudes, from sea level up to 2,000 meters in Central and South America, and up to 500 meters in the South Pacific Islands (Criley and Broschat, 1992).

Most of the Heliconia species are distributed primarily in Neotropical areas from the North of Mexico to the South of Brazil (Santos, 1978, Dahlgren et al., 1985 and Kress, 1990). A small Paleotropical group, about eight species, occurs in islands of the South Pacific (Tomlinson, 1969 and Kress, 1985). There are approximately 40 Brazilian species with two primary areas of distribution: the Amazon basin and the Atlantic coastal forest (Kress, 1990). About 100 or more species, native mainly to tropical and subtropical South and Central America (Cronquist, 1981).

Several attempts have been made over the years to sort out the taxonomy of the Old World Heliconia. Baker (1893), followed by Schumann (1900) and Winkler (1930), dealt with the problem of identity and origin of these taxa by assigning them to the neotropical species Heliconia bihai L. Others such as Ridley (1908a, b), Backer (1920) and Green (1969) recognized the distinctive and endemic features of the paleotropical taxa that separated them from the neotropical species. This ornamental rhizomatous herbaceous plant from the Heliconia genus, belongs to the Musaceae family, now constitutes the Heliconiaceae family in the Zingiberales order. The various species of Heliconia are subdivided into five subgenera: Heliconia, Taeniostrobus, Stenochlamys, Heliconiopsis and Griggisia; and 28 sections (Kress et al., 1993).

Infertility means reduced fertility or the cow is ultimately capable of becoming pregnant and giving birth to a live calf but the interval may be much longer than 12 months. 

I. Problems leading to infertility

1. No signs of estrus

When the animal is pregnant and for a short time after calving the cows may not show estrus signs. A thorough palpation of the ovaries and tubular genital tract should be performed and a repeat examination may be necessary.

Introduction

A complex spatial soil properties pattern is directly controlled by soil internal factors and anthropogenic impacts.Hartemink et al. (2001) elaborate a strong decline in mineralogy, morphology and genesis of soil research than strong increase in pedometrics applications during 1967 to 2001. Hartemink and McBratney (2008) identified this change as “soil science renaissance”. Basically, the soil science deeply rooted in agriculture, geology, and chemistry but the paradigm has been shifted from classification and inventorization to quantification of soil patterns in spatial as well as temporal patterns and their impact on the ecosystem health and hydrological cycle. The environmental keen approach explains that soil is in the center of the ecosystem and highly interacting with the biotic and abiotic factors of the ecosystem and a complex pattern and process has been co-evolved with the time.

Protected cultivation practices can be defined as a cropping technique wherein the micro environment surrounding the plant body is controlled partially or fully as
per plant need during their period of growth to maximize the yield and resource saving. Cultivation of vegetables under protective structures such as net houses has become popular in recent years (Kaur et al., 2004; Cheema et al., 2004; Singh et al., 2004).

Introduction

Since shrimp aquaculture became a big commercial enterprise in the 1970s, disease has had a significant influence on the industry. Major diseases of farmed shrimp have been identified as those caused by viruses, true bacteria, protozoa, and fungi. Nowadays, chemotherapeutics, regular sanitization, and enhanced culture procedures are employed to treat many bacterial, fungal, and protozoan-caused illnesses. Shrimp farming continues to be impacted by diseases, and their avoidance necessitates the development and use of a biosecurity policy unique to each facility, culture system, and sanitary zone.

Microalgae have long been recognized as good potential sources for biofuel production due to their relatively high oil content and rapid biomass production (Schenk et al., 2008; Hu et al., 2008). These photosynthetic organisms thrive in a variety of aquatic habitats, including lakes, rivers, oceans, and even sewage, demonstrating their adaptability to diverse environmental conditions. They can tolerate a wide range of temperatures, salinities, and pH levels, as well as varying light intensities and aquatic or desert conditions. Additionally, microalgae can grow independently or in symbiosis with other organisms, making them highly versatile for various cultivation systems (Mutanda et al., 2011). Algae are generally grouped into three major categories: Rhodophyta (red algae), Phaeophyta (brown algae), and Chlorophyta (green algae), and are further classified by size into macroalgae and microalgae. Macroalgae are large, multicellular organisms visible to the naked eye, while microalgae consist of microscopic single cells that can be either prokaryotic, similar to cyanobacteria, or eukaryotic, similar to green algae (Fields et al., 2014; Maltsev & Maltseva, 2021). Microalgae are capable of producing a wide array of valuable bioproducts, including polysaccharides, lipids, pigments, proteins, vitamins, bioactive compounds, and antioxidants. They grow at a much faster rate compared to terrestrial crops and can be cultivated on non-agricultural land using non-potable saltwater or wastewater, reducing competition with food crops and ensuring sustainability (Lee et al., 2014). This has made microalgae an increasingly attractive alternative feedstock for biodiesel production, which relies heavily on the high lipid content of microalgae. The majority of these lipids are stored in the form of triacylglycerols, a type of oil that is ideal for biodiesel production. Beyond biodiesel, microalgae can also be utilized in various other energy production pathways. Some microalgal strains can produce hydrogen gas under specific growth conditions, while algal biomass can be combusted like wood or digested anaerobically to produce methane biogas, which can be used for heat and power generation. Additionally, algal biomass can be processed into crude bio-oil through pyrolysis, further expanding its applications as a renewable energy source (Mumtaz et al., 2019).