eChapters

Programme Coordinator, KVK, Gonikoppal, Karnataka

Horticultural extension also known as a horticultural advisory service plays a crucial role in boosting horticultural productivity, increasing food security, improving rural livelihoods and promoting horticulture as an engine of economic growth in rural areas. Horticultural Extension needs to provide a critical support service for rural farmers at the same time meeting the new challenges faced by them in their farming. Horticultural extension in remote and hilly terrains is difficult and time consuming, requiring some innovative methodologies to meet the farmers needs and expectations. At KVK we decided to experiment with an idea of a farmers collective organization, established and nurtured right from the beginning at KVK itself with support from its host organization (ICAR-IIHR, Bengaluru) and NABARD, Kodagu. 

Introduction

Virtual supply chain management is the digital representation of inventory data that the managers manage from anywhere in the world. In the 1980s, when the proliferation of computers gave more importance to the human resource, f inance, and manufacturing units communicating with each other for better quality work, that led to enterprise resource planning, and slowly each task of supply chain management started virtualizing in its full length.

A virtual supply chain has advantages such as better inventory control, shorter lead times, quicker order fulfilment, increased supply chain visibility, more accurate demand forecasts, and higher customer satisfaction. It gives businesses the ability to make the most use of their resources, cut expenses and lessen waste throughout the supply chain.

However, putting in place a virtual supply chain calls for thorough planning technology integration, and network-wide process alignment. Overcoming obstacles like data security, interoperability, and change management are all part of it. To fully reap the rewards of a virtual supply chain, businesses must also invest in technical infrastructure, training courses, and partnerships.

Introduction

Emerging and reemerging infectiousdiseases are defined as the diseases of which the incidence has shown an increasing trend in the recent past or threatening to increase in the near future. Emerging infectious disease (EID) are caused by apathogen previously unknown to cause disease orre-emerging pathogens, which have previously causeddisease but now reveal increased infectivity orextended transmission ranges that improve their ability to cause disease in human populations. Today, whole world is facing a concerning rise in emerging infectious diseases and the majority of EID have been observed in the past decades.Multiple recent EID outbreaks e.g. the 2003 SARS and the 2012 MERS outbreaks, the 2009 swine flu pandemic,the 2013–2016 Ebolavirus epidemic, the 2014chikungunya outbreak in the Western Hemisphere,the 2015 Zika and the 2019 SARS Cov 2 virus epidemic have exhibited significantmorbidity and mortality and large geographicranges. These outbreakshave indicated the potential for evenmore severe outcomes in future outbreaks. Severaladditional pathogens are also considered capable ofproducing EID outbreaks, these include Escherichia coliO157:H7, hantavirus, dengue virus and West Nilevirus, while malaria, tuberculosis (TB), cholera, andinfluenza are often considered reemerging diseases with the potential for new outbreaks.Many newly emerging diseases in humans are actually long-standing zoonosesof animal host species that appeared inhuman populations following a climatic or environmental change. The complex interplay between climate change, ecosystems, and human activities have created conditions that favour the emergence and spread of infectious diseases posing significant challenges to public health. Although, improved sanitation, increased access to health care, and advances in preventive and clinical medicine have reduced the mortality and morbidity rates of several infectious diseases.

V belt: An endless power transmission belt with a trapezoidal cross section, which runs in a pulley with a V-shaped groove. The top surface of the belt approximately flush with to top of pulley. V belt transmits higher torque at less width and tension than a flat belt.

V blocks: Metal blocks cut ‘V’ shaped on one side to permit holding cylindrical work while machining or testing.

V type engine: An engine with cylinder blocks arranged in a ‘V’ shape. One crankshaft serves both banks of cylinders.

Vacuum: Negative gauge pressure, or a pressure less than atmospheric pressure. Vacuum can be measured in psi, but is usually measured in inches or millimeters of mercury (Hg); a reading of 30 in. Hg (762 mm Hg) would indicate a perfect vacuum.

Electron Microscopes are scientific instruments that use a beam of highly energetic electrons to examine objects on a very fine scale. This examination can yield information about the topography (surface features of an object), morphology (shape and size of the particles making up the object), composition (the elements and compounds that the object is composed of and the relative amounts of them) and crystallographic information (how the atoms are arranged in the object).

Electron Microscopes were developed due to the limitations of Light Microscopes which are limited by the physics of light to 500x or 1000x magnification and a resolution of 0.2 micrometers. In the early 1930’s this theoretical limit had been reached and there was a scientific desire to see the fine details of the interior structures of organic cells (nucleus, mitochondria...etc.). This required 10,000x plus magnification which was just not possible using Light Microscopes.

Abstract

Cloud computing is becoming a technology mature enough for its use in genome research experiments. The use of large datasets, its highly demanding algorithms and the need for sudden computational resources, make large-scale sequencing experiments an attractive test-case for cloud computing. So far I have seen cloud computing demonstrated using R. However, it remains to be seen a rigorous comparison of its performance using a BLAST search and its ability to cope with ever-increasing databases and open source frameworks such as bioperl or bioconductor.

Introduction
 
The emerging functional foods market presents a considerable challenge to all manufacturers to keep abreast of the use of adequate packaging materials for their products. The interest in functional foods is intrinsically linked to the potential health benefits of their bioactive components. Preserving these bioactive components is, therefore, a crucial factor to providing the anticipated health benefits of functional foods. However, recurring failure in maintaining the quality of functional foods has been reported. Functional foods include a wide variety of products such as prebiotics and probiotics, dried foods (fibers, probiotics, tea, herbs, etc.), fermented products (yogurts, kefirs, vegetables), and fresh fruits and vegetables.

Spine gourd or teasle gourd (Momordica dioica : Roxb Syn.Momordica roxburghii G. Don, M. wallichi, M J Roem) is a rhizomatous, perennial and distinctly dioecious species of family Cucurbitaceae and  grows widely in many parts of India, mostly confined to  Eastern and South Eastern states. Vernacular names are kartoli,kakrol,meethakarela, padora, bhatt karela, palupagal, tumba, tumpai, golkandra, kankad, kankera, bara-karela, kankoda, kankodan, kantola and phalguni. In India it is mainly grown in Orissa, Bihar, and West Bengal .It is  found in nature in the Punjab, Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Kerala and Maharashtra especially in areas with the least human interference. This is  a delicacy for its typical taste, attributed to high seed protein content. It also contains high amount of carotene (162 µg/100 g of edible portion) (Gopalan et al., 1982) and its tuberous roots have medicinal value too. It is a cheap source of vitamins and minerals (Bhuiya et al., 1977). This vegetable is gaining popularity  because of its high demand in  market. Certain limitations like lack of awareness among  farmers, non-availability of quality planting materials of standard varieties, unpredictable sex ratio in seedling progenies are arresting the expected spread of this nutritious vegetable (Ali et al., 1991).

Ultrasonographic examination of gastrointestinal tract is not very much rewarding in dogs because of gas in the tract but it is crucial for a correct diagnosis. Imaging of stomach plays a significant role in the diagnosis of gastric diseases such as gastric dilatation, gastric foreign bodies, pyloric outflow obstruction, or gastric tumours.

Abstract
Agroecology and biodiversity are interconnected concepts that play a crucial role in shaping sustainable agricultural systems. Agroecology, an approach that integrates ecological principles into agricultural practices, aims to enhance the sustainability, resilience, and productivity of farming systems. Biodiversity, encompassing the variety of life forms in ecosystems, provides essential ecosystem services and supports the stability of agroecosystems. This chapter explores the principles of agroecology, the importance of biodiversity in agriculture, and the ways in which they interact to promote sustainable farming. It also examines the challenges and future directions for integrating agroecology and biodiversity in modern agriculture, highlighting case studies and innovative practices that contribute to the advancement of
sustainable agricultural systems.
Keywords: Agroecology, biodiversity, sustainable agriculture, ecosystem services, ecological principles, agroecosystems, resilience, environmental sustainability, case studies, innovative practices.

Introduction
Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) is rapidly becoming one of the most critical challenges in global health, with profound implications for both human and veterinary medicine. The increasing prevalence of drug-resistant bacterial infections has eroded the effectiveness of many frontline antibiotics, making even routine treatments more complex and less predictable. Surveillance data from the World Health Organization’s GLASS initiative highlights the scale of the problem: resistance to third-generation cephalosporins in Escherichia coli and methicillin in Staphylococcus aureus has reached alarming levels in dozens of countries, complicating the management of common infections and raising the stakes for therapeutic innovation. In veterinary settings, the crisis is equally urgent. Resistance has emerged across nearly all major antibiotic classes used in livestock, poultry, and companion animals. Contributing factors include widespread antibiotic use in agriculture, limited diagnostic stewardship, and the ease with which resistance genes spread within and between microbial communities. These trends not only threaten animal health and productivity but also increase the risk of zoonotic transmission, blurring the boundaries between veterinary and human public health. Global health authorities have long warned of a “post-antibiotic era” - a time when conventional antibiotics may no longer offer reliable protection against bacterial pathogens. Recent reports suggest that this era is no longer hypothetical. If current trajectories continue, drug-resistant infections could account for up to 10 million deaths annually by 2050, with staggering economic consequences. To address this escalating threat, researchers are exploring alternative therapeutic strategies that go beyond traditional antibiotics. Among the most promising are antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) and bacteriophage therapy. AMPs are naturally occurring molecules found in animals and other organisms, known for their broad-spectrum activity and rapid bactericidal effects. Their ability to disrupt bacterial membranes through electrostatic and hydrophobic interactions makes them less susceptible to resistance mechanisms that target conventional antibiotics. Bacteriophages - viruses that specifically infect and lyse bacteria - offer a complementary approach. Phage therapy is highly targeted, capable of eliminating specific bacterial strains while sparing beneficial microbiota. Phage’s can also evolve alongside bacterial populations, potentially outpacing resistance development. In veterinary medicine, phage-based treatments have shown promise in managing infections in poultry, swine, cattle, and companion animals, particularly where antibiotic options are limited or ineffective. The combined use of AMPs and bacteriophages represents a novel and potentially synergistic strategy for tackling AMR. By leveraging distinct mechanisms of action and delivery profiles, these agents may enhance therapeutic efficacy, reduce resistance selection pressure, and improve outcomes across a range of veterinary applications. This chapter explores the pharmacological and pharmacokinetic challenges associated with delivering such combination therapies, with a focus on optimizing their use in the fight against antimicrobial resistance.

1. Introduction

Phytochemicals are biologically active compounds found in plants, which act as a resistance system for host plants and protect them from biotic and abiotic stresses. Phytochemicals act as antioxidants, which react with the free radicals present in the cell. Free radicals are formed in the cell as a result of aerobic metabolism and these radicals are biologically active that damages the macromolecules like DNA, proteins and lipids resulting in oxidizing chain reactions (Moussa et al., 2011). Oxidative stress damage leads to various disorders like autoimmune disorders, cancer, rheumatoid arthritis, cataract, aging, cardiovascular diseases and other neurodegenerative disorders (Uttara et al., 2009). The major actions of antioxidant in the cells are to protect them against the damage caused by reactive oxygen species (ROS).

Medicinal plants are good sources of antioxidants such as vitamin E, ascorbic acid and carotenoids. There are huge numbers of medicinal plants that are veiled in the environment. In ancient times, different plant species have been used for the treatment of human ailments from fever to cancer (Devendrakumar et al., 2009).

Management of the poultry house environment forms an essential aspect towards maximizing production performance. Generally, proper maintenance of poultry litter is seldom given emphasis. The condition of litter significantly influences bird’s performance and ultimately affects the economy for rearing. The litter is defined as the bedding materials of around 5-6 cm height consisting of locally available materials like rice husk, peanut hull, wood shavings, paper shreds, sawdust or groundnut hulls. These materials can be used alone or in combination to rear the birds on floor under deep litter system of management. The excreta, feathers, spilled feed and water are mixed with bedding material, get further decomposed due to heat and bacterial action resulting in built-up-litter towards the end of rearing.

The term Anesthesia means loss of sensation.

GENERAL ANESTHESIA

In the technique of anesthesia, a drug is capable of causing loss of sensation together with loss of consciousness, sufficient to allow a surgical operation to be carried out.

Routes of General Anesthesia (G.A.)
Inhalation

Ether, Nitrous oxide, Halothane, Chloroform etc.

Ultrasound and survey radiography are two important diagnostic modalities regularly employed in the diagnosis of intestinal diseases. Both modalities are complementary to each other in investigating the problems related to intestines. It is always better to have plain survey radiograph of abdomen first and then ultrasound to rule out obstruction or radio-opaque foreign bodies. Wherever barium meal radiograph is indicated, it should be done after sonographic examination as barium may degrade image quality of the sonogram. Assessment of intestinal motility can be done in real time sonography.

In light of the high population of nematodes, N.A. Cobb (1915) who is considered to be the father of American Nematology, provided a dramatic description of the abundance of nematodes. He stated, “if all the matter in the universe except the nematodes were swept away, our world still would be dimly recognisable.

32.1 Introduction

Development or embryogenesis refers to the events that occur after fertilisation. Embryogenesis in fish includes the formation of stages up to fingerlings. The process is similar in all fishes, but there are some differences between teleosts and elasmobranchs. The development of telolecithal eggs in fish begins soon after sperm fertilisation.

• In statistics, best linear unbiased prediction (BLUP) is used in linear mixed models for the estimation of random effects. BLUP was derived by Charles Roy Henderson in 1950 but the term “best linear unbiased predictor” (or “prediction”) seems not to have been used until 1962 (Henderson, 1975, 1985).

• “Best linear unbiased predictions” (BLUPs) of random effects are similar to best linear unbiased estimates (BLUEs) of fixed effects. The distinction arises because it is conventional to talk not about estimating fixed effects but rather about predicting random effects, but the two terms are otherwise equivalent.

BLUE and BLUP are both acronyms used in statistics

• BLUE stands for Best Linear Unbiased Estimates and refers to the solutions (or estimates) associated with the fixed effects of a model.

• BLUP stands for Best Linear Unbiased Predictions and refers to the solutions (but identified as predictions) associated with the random effects of a model.

• Both BLUEs and BLUPs are linear functions of the data and have the lowest variance.

• The expected value of a mean estimate for an individual equals its true value for BLUEs.

• BLUPs are similar to BLUEs, but it is conventional to talk about estimating fixed effects but predicting random effects.

• BLUP is the standard selection method in animal breeding where the breeding values of sires are estimated based on progeny performance to select superior genotypes and to breed superior families.

The whole brain or its slices could be stained for differentiation of the areas of gray and white matter for better understanding of macroscopic neuroanatomy. Various researchers have developed the methods of staining of either the whole brain or its slices. The review of all these methods is being detailed below. These would definitely help the teachers and students to teach and grasp the macroscopic details of central nervous system viz. nuclei, laminae, fascicule, capsule and other structures with little or no magnification.
Staining of Whole Brain and Sections from its Slices (Hewitt, 1959)
Fixation of whole brain in either 70% alcohol or 10% formaldehyde without removal of membranes and blood vessels.
Protocol
1. The collected whole brain is immersed in ten volumes of staining fluid.
2. The staining fluid can be resaturated, when ever it becomes paler and clearer in colour, then it can be used in smaller volume in proportion to the volume of brain for the next staining.
3. Complete staining is assessed by uniform red colouration of the brain. A cats’ brain requires at least 1 month and the human brain not less than 6 months. The time required is governed by size of the brain. The brain stem is cut of about 5 mm thickness to examine the completion of the staining.
4. The stained brain is immersed in ten volumes of 70% alcohol for differentiation.

6.1 Introduction

Nanotechnology is the study of manipulating matter on an atomic or a molecular scale that deals with particle sizes between 1 and 100 nano meters at least in one dimension. Particles reduced to the nanoscale show some unusual properties which are different from what they exhibit on a macro scale, enabling unique systematic applications Tarafdar et al. (2012). The unexpected properties of nanoparticles are broadly due to the large surface area of the material, which dominates the contributions made by the very small quantities of the material. Nanoparticles, thus, take advantage of their dramatically increased surface area to volume ratio.

Nanotechnology has the potential to revolutionize the agricultural and food industry with new tools for the molecular treatment of diseases, rapid disease detection, nanofertilizer, enhancing the ability of plants to absorb nutrients etc. Nanotechnology opened doors to new ways of identifying and quantifying biomolecules through use of nanosensors and nanoprobes.