eChapters

SOIL WATER

Soil water and oxygen share the pore space in soil and generally the oxygen content is determined by the water content, which is added by irrigation or rains and then keeps on changing due to evapotranspiration. Water is the vehicle by which most nutrients move from the soil to root surface. But for the lowland rice, nutrients are most available to plants at ?eld capacity moisture (about 0.3 atmosphere soil water tension) and the availability decreases as the moisture content decreases to wilting point (about 15 atmosphere tension). That is why rainwater or irrigation increases nutrient availability, while extremely dry condition decreases it. There is thus a signi?cant interaction between water and nutrient availability in soil (Singh et al., 2014). In a study in India (Singh et al., 1980) the yield of wheat was signi?cantly affected by irrigation water and nitrogen treatments; maximum yield was obtained with irrigation at 50% available soil water in 60 cm soil depth and 120 kg ha ^–1 nitrogen addition. A study on wheat at Delhi (Kumar et al., 2015) very well shows the effect of irrigation water on yield and uptake of nutrients (NPK) (Table 5.1).

In agro-ecosystem, many agricultural and horticultural crops are dependent on insects for their pollination; their degree of interdependence varies species to species. Some plant species depend primarily on a single pollinator’s species or genus, whereas some plant species accept diverse pollinators. About to 80 per cent of flowering plants’ pollination determined for pollinators (FA0, 2007) and out of that most of the floras depend on insect pollinators for pollination and pollinators depend on flora for their food. Bees are considered as most important pollinator due to their diversity, credential ability and effective pollinators of many plant species. Most of the crops pollination need was met by wild pollinators living within the farming landscape (Kevan and Phillips, 2001). Therefore, pollinators play paramount role in ecosystem through enhance the crop productivity and conserving biodiversity. On the above service of pollinators is priceless and natural endowment, but the society we live in, always categorized and measured in terms of financial value. In 2005, globally, insect pollination services economic value was estimated to be about €153 billion (Gallai et al., 2009). The United Nations also reported that the economics of ecosystems and biodiversity by insect pollination was valued at £134 billion. The assisted pollination may have to be done when natural pollination is insufficient in order to reduce potential yield loss (Klein et al., 2007).

Principal Scientist and I/c Head, Division of Social Sciences and Training, IIHR, Hessaraghatta Lake Post, Bangalore – 560 089, Karnataka

Business analytics focuses on data, statistical analysis and reporting to help investigate and analyze business performance, provide insights, and drive recommendations to improve performance.

What are the 4 types of business analytics?

Introduction

India was a self-sufficient nation in its food production before independence but after the occurrence of various famines, the government in late 1960s started focusing more on the crop production i.e.,green revolution (NAAS 2019). Use of hybrids, fertilizers and plant protection chemicals increased and major investments were made on irrigation structures which led to a massive jump in the production of crops. But with time, the negative externalities caused by green revolution were vividly noticeable. The indiscriminate use of chemicals has debilitated the environment by causing soil depletion, pollution, deforestation, climate change etc. thus affecting the health of human kind. The lofty prices of inputs led the farmers to resort to debt thus falling into debt trap and suicides. In order to address this problem an alternative to the conventional farming is required which is more sustainable and climate resilient. In the mid-1990s, natural farming viz., Zero Budget Natural Farming (ZBNF) was demonstrated by Sh. Subhash Palekar also known Subash Palekar Natural Farming (SPNF). It is an agroecology based diversified farming system which involves no financial outlay to purchase essential from outside and makes farming profitable. Mishra (2018) studied on Zero Budget Natural Farming (ZBNF) and found that crops grown under ZBNF evinced higher yield than the crops grown under non-ZBNF.

Abstract
Economic and policy considerations play a crucial role in shaping the landscape of modern agriculture. As the sector faces increasing pressures from global population growth, climate change, and resource constraints, understanding the economic dynamics and developing effective policies are essential for fostering sustainable agricultural practices. This chapter explores the economic factors influencing agriculture, including market dynamics, financial viability, and investment strategies. It also examines key policy considerations, such as regulatory frameworks, subsidies, and international trade agreements. By analyzing these aspects, the chapter aims to provide a comprehensive overview of how economic and policy considerations impact agricultural development and sustainability. It offers recommendations for policymakers, stakeholders, and industry leaders to create a more resilient and equitable agricultural sector.
Keywords: Economic considerations, policy frameworks, agriculture, market dynamics, financial viability, investment strategies, subsidies, international trade agreements, regulatory frameworks, sustainable agriculture.

Introduction
Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) is an escalating global concern, rendering many once-effective antimicrobials useless and threatening modern medicine’s foundations [1]. RNA-based therapies offer precision, programmability, and modularity—tailoring interventions directly to microbial genetic machinery [2, 3].
Main RNA-based modalities include
• Antisense Oligonucleotides (ASOs): Short synthetic single-stranded RNAs that bind complementary mRNA in bacteria to inhibit translation or induce RNase H–mediated degradation [15].
• RNA Interference (RNAi): Though classically applied to eukaryotes, siRNAs or crRNAs delivered via nanoparticles (also termed “nanoantibiotics”) can silence microbial resistance or virulence genes while the carrier materials physically damage microbial membranes— enhancing lethality [3, 4,5].
• CRISPR-Cas Systems: Adapted as antimicrobials, CRISPR-Cas tools can precisely target and cleave resistance genes in pathogens via conjugative plasmids or phages [6].
• Ribozymes / External Guide Sequences (EGSs): Engineered noncoding RNAs that harness RNase P or ribozyme activity to degrade specific bacterial mRNAs [16].
Key strengths
• Target specificity—can silence essential microbial or resistance genes while sparing beneficial microbiota.
• Rapid design and adaptability—once delivery systems are in place, targeting new genes requires sequence change alone.
• Synergy potential—combining gene silencing with antibiotics or physical antimicrobial actions increases efficacy.

Similarity between an entrepreneur and a self-employed person is that they both own a business, but self-employment means working for oneself as an independent owner of the business rather than being employed. Majority of business owners fall under the category of self-employed. They begin with a skill or particular set of skills and find that the opportunity to make money arises.
An entrepreneur is a self-employed person having additional attributes of undertaking challenges and moderate risk-taking behaviour to achieve his/her goals. Entrepreneur is a person who organizes and operates a business taking on extraordinary financial risks in order to do so and has a growth orientation. Entrepreneurship is all about risks and rewards. Entrepreneurs think outside the box for the best ways to succeed and move on to their next venture. While the businesses might be of interest it is really the passion of the start-up and leading something to success that drives them every day. Often this can lead to selling the business or moving on to start a new one, once they have everything in place as they are always looking for challenges.
Income generation refers to activities undertaken for monetary returns and livelihood. Income generation is common to entrepreneurship, self-employment and income generation. Activities done for sustenance or low profit activities with minimal challenges are termed as income generation.
Phases of entrepreneurship development
There are three stages of establishing an enterprise:
1. Income generation: In the initial stage one tries to generate surplus or profit. This is done on part time or casual basis to supplement income e.g. a man with some surplus money might put his money in a fixed deposit account in a bank or a chit fund to earn some interest.
2. Self-employment: In the second stage an individual’s fulltime involvement is in his Bown occupation, e.g. a person who starts a general merchant or a grocery shop and s/he remains satisfied with it.

Pseudostem borer: Odoiporus longicollis: Curculionidae

Distribution : It is widely distributed in all banana growing areas and has got introduced into South India somewhere in the eighties and spread fast in the banana areas of Tamil Nadu, Maharashtra, Kerala and Karnataka.

Biology : Adults of the weevil are reddish brown to black and resemble the adults of the rhizome weevil in size and shape. They live for about four months. The snout is long with the characteristic geniculate antennae.

Introduction

The capabilities and effort to collect the geographic data has increased dramatically in the last decade to cope up with the increasing demand for the support of decision making and planning process in the state, national and global level.  From the Government sector, there is a need for spatial data to make quick responses to natural disasters, industrial accidents and environmental crises as actions will be decided based on geography. There is constant pressure to make wise decisions in a more time and cost effective and efficient manner. Accurate and current geospatial data are critical to these decisions.

The quantitative increase in plant body such as increase in the length of stem and root, the number of leaves etc., is referred to as plant growth whereas, the qualitative changes such as germination of seed, formation of leaves, flowers and fruits, falling of leaves and fruits is referred as development. Utilization of these substances for proper development of the plant is regulated by certain chemical messengers called plant growth substances or plant growth regulators, which in minute amounts increase or decrease or modifies the physiological process in plants. Plant growth substances are the chemical other than nutrient which required in very small amount but without which plant can not complete their physiology.

The two sets of internal factors, viz., nutrition and hormone control the growth and development of the plant. The raw material required for growth is supplied by nutritional factors which include the minerals, organic substances the protein, carbohydrates, etc.

Soil conservation in hilly areas

Soil erosion is a major problem on hills because of steep slopes. It has been estimated that about 6 million ha of land requires intensive conservation measures in Himalayan and sub-Himalayan regions of Uttar Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Punjab and Himachal Pradesh. Anthropogenic activities like shifting cultivation, deforestation, over grazing accelerate soil erosion in hilly ecosystem.

Introduction

Climate change specifies long-term shifts in weather patterns, which are measured over decades to millions of years. In modern times, it predominantly concerns the increase in Earth’s average temperature due to human activities, particularly the burning of fossil fuels10. The rise in greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide, methane, and nitrous oxide traps heat in the atmosphere, leading to global warming. In connection with animal health, climate change affects the ecosystems in which animals live, influencing the availability of water and food, the spread of diseases, and the physiological stress animals endure due to temperature extremes. Domestic animals, mostly livestock, are vulnerable to heat stress and reduced productivity, whereas wildlife faces altered habitats and increased exposure to pathogens. The connection between climate change and animal health is intricate, as changes in temperature, humidity, and weather patterns create new challenges for both domestic and wild species.

Abstract
Education and knowledge transfer are vital components in advancing agricultural practices and ensuring the sustainability of food systems. This chapter explores the importance of education and knowledge transfer in agriculture, focusing on how they contribute to improved farming practices, technological adoption, and sustainable development. It examines various educational approaches, including formal education, extension services, and informal learning networks, as well as the role of technology in facilitating knowledge dissemination. Additionally, the chapter discusses the challenges and opportunities associated with knowledge transfer, such as bridging the digital divide, ensuring relevance and accessibility, and fostering collaboration between stakeholders. By highlighting successful case studies and providing recommendations for enhancing education and knowledge transfer, the chapter aims to offer a comprehensive overview of how these processes can drive agricultural innovation and development.
Keywords: Education, knowledge transfer, agriculture, extension services, technology, sustainable development, informal learning, digital divide, stakeholder collaboration, agricultural innovation.

It is an inherent, distinctive and implicit human nature to preserve and care for objects that seem unique, rare and adorable. This instinctive desire of the human mind must have invented the concept of museum. The word museum derives from the Greek word “Mousein” which mean “Seat of the Muses”. The muses are the divine patron of arts in Greek Mythology.
A museum by definition is “An institution that houses and cares for a collection of artifacts and other objects of scientific, artistic or historical importance and makes them available for public viewing through exhibitions that may be permanent or temporary (Alexander and Alexander 2008; Kamath et al., 2014). The anatomy museum comes under the category of science museum. Anatomy museum define as a place where bones, models, charts wet specimen of permanent value are kept and displayed. It has to be designed to function as an institute where active leaning can take place (Kamath et al., 2016).
The museums now witnessed a transition from an institute housing a collection of models and artistic sketches to one housing formalin preserved specimens, corrosion casts and plastinates. The contemporary museums have sophisticated interiors, display, lightings and use computerized catalogues and audio-visual aids to teach anatomy.
History
The concept of anatomy museum was first conceived by the Edinburg Surgeons in 1763 A.D. A cabinet with anatomical picture books and few specimens was first prepared and named as cabinet of curiosities. Early museums housing a simple collection of wood, clay, wax or ivory models of anatomical specimens.
The discovery of formalin in 1859 by Alexander Mikhailovich Butlerov was a great milestone in anatomical history and changed the, manner of anatomical specimen presentation. Later on discovery of different methods significantly make transition in the nature of collection exhibited in anatomy museum.

Schemes and projects are functioning in our country for promotion of entrepreneurship development among rural youth, women and would-be entrepreneurs. Agri-Clinics and Agri-Business Centres (ACABC) central sector scheme jointly managed and implemented by National Institute of Agricultural Extension Management (MANAGE) and National Bank for Agriculture and Rural Development (NABARD), Atal Incubation Centre (AIC) supported by NITI Aayog, Rural Self Employment training Institute (RSETI) managed by Banks with active co-operation from the Government of India and State Government in the line of RUDSETI (Rural Development and Self Employment Training Institute), Rural Technology Park (RTP) of NIRD, MUDRA Bank established under Pradhan Mantri MUDRA Yojana (PMMY), Agriculture Skill Council of India (ASCI), Rural Livelihood programs under ASPIRE Scheme of Ministry of Micro, Small and Medium Enterprises etc. are some support schemes and institutions for entrepreneurship development in India. Her are the some of the entrepreneurship Development Programmes and Schemes:
1. PM VIshwakarma Kaushal Samman (PM VIKAS)
• Launched on 1Feb, 2023
• To empower traditional artisans and craftspeople by integrating them with the MSME value chain, financial support, access to latest technology.
2. Self-Reliant India (SRI) Fund
• Launched on 2020
• Launched under: Atma Nirbhar Package
• Fund: Rs.10, 000 cr
• Objective: objective of supporting Venture Capital (VC) / Private Equity (PE) firms to invest in the MSME segment

Introduction

Weeds are unwanted plants in agricultural production causing huge losses in crop production system particularly rainfed agriculture. Of the total estimated losses caused in crop production by pests, diseases and weeds in the world, the weeds alone are responsible for one-third of it. Weeds interfere with crop growth and cause an yield loss to the tune of 10% of crop production which amounts to a total loss of about 20 million MT of food grains, valued at over Rs.10,000 crores, at current prices in India. Besides, losses of similar magnitude are experienced in vegetable, fruit and plantation crops. The losses inflicted on biodiversity, environment and health are considerable and have not been quantified scientifically.

In November 1992 a document entitled Warning to Humanity was released, signed by 1500 scientists from around the world, including 99 Nobel laureates, and the Director General of the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO). The document stated that “human beings and the natural world are on a collision course,” which “may so alter the living world that it will be unable to sustain life in the manner that we know.”

For maximization of productivity in any kind of poultry venture the knowledge on the behaviour of birds and its application play very significant role. Behaviour is the reaction of the whole organism to certain stimuli, or the manner in which it interacts to its environment. Behavioural patterns are not inherited as such, but develop through the process of growth and get differentiated under the influence of genetic and environmental factors. Primary function of behaviour is to enable the bird to adjust itself to some changes in condition, whether external or internal. Most animals have a behavioural pattern which can be tried out in a given situation and in this way they learn to apply one or the other according to that which produces the best adjustment.

The Aquatic Resources Research Institute (ARRI) was established to conduct research & answer important impending questions associated with the nation’s aquatic resources, like conservation of marine organisms, marine science, oceanography, aquaculture, biotechnology etc. It also works for transferring or sharing the knowledge to public, for guiding towards sustainable development.

Sichang Marine Science Research & Training Station: (SMaRT) Chonburi Province

Thailand This is another unit of the ARRI. It was established in 1979, in Chonburi Province Thailand.