eChapters

Introduction

India has the distinction of being the largest producer of pulses in the world. Among the important pulse crops cultivated in the country are: chickpea, pigeonpea, lentil, mungbean, urdbean, fieldpea, rajmash and lathyrus. The pulse crops occupied an area of 22.85 million ha with a total production of 13.07 million tones and average productivity of 572 kg/ha. Being a high protein grain, pulses have special status in the diet, particularly for vegetarian population. Apart from being a good source of protein, they are also good source of energy, essential amino acids and vitamins in the daily diets of the people, especially of low-income group. Pulses have importance in sustainable agriculture by way of fixing atmospheric nitrogen in the soil.But with intensification of agriculture and introduction of irrigation and other facilities the area and production under pulses is declining so much so that per caput availability of pulses has declined from 69 g day-1 to about  36 g day^-1.

Introduction

Rice (Oryza sativa L.), one of the most important cereal crops of India, occupies 23.3 per cent of total cropped area of the country. Rice contributes 43 per cent of total food grain production and 46 per cent of total cereal production. It continues to play a vital role in the nation’s food grain supply. It is also a staple food of nearly half of the world population. Rice is primarily a high caloric food having protein content (6-17%) with high biological value and a low amount of fat (2-2.5%). B-group vitamins content in rice grains are at par with wheat, however, calcium content in rice is generally low. It ranks third after wheat and maize in terms of worldwide production. Asia accounts for 90 and 92% of the world’s rice area and production, respectively. Thus, rice production, consumption and trade are concentrated in Asia. Among the rice growing countries in the world, India has the largest areas under rice crop and ranks second in production next to China.

Abstract

During inspection of several lily plantations under cover in different districts of Himachal Pradesh plants with severe disease symptoms were observed. The affected plants showed a progressive loss of vigor, were stunted and had a severely malformed leaves. These symptoms were observed on large scale mainly in oriental lily hybrids ‘Acapulaco’. The plants were suspected to be infected with phytoplasma, the presence of which was demonstrated with fluorescent microscopy (DAPI stain). The phytoplasma etiology was further confirmed by conducting nested polymerase chain reaction (PCR) assays using universal primer pairs P1/P7 followed by R16F2n/R16R2, which amplified a fragment of phytoplasma 16SrDNA. This is the first report of phytoplasma infection in lilies identified by molecular assays from India.

Introduction
Toxic inorganic and organic compounds are continuously contaminating our environment, endangering both human health and the planet’s ecosystems. This is a major worldwide problem. Because they persist in the environment, these pollutants which are caused by industrial processes, agricultural practices, urbanization, and over use of natural resources are very hard to control. While inorganic contaminants, including heavy metals, are difficult to break down naturally and need more complex remediation techniques, organic molecules may frequently be broken down into less dangerous components. Among these methods, bioremediation has become a viable, environmentally beneficial option that uses the inherent powers of fungus, bacteria, and plants to purify
and repair polluted soils and streams.
Phytoremediation, a specific form of bioremediation, harnesses the power of green plants to absorb, accumulate, degrade, or stabilize these harmful substances (Wang et al., 2021). This process not only mitigates pollution but also revitalizes ecosystems by improving soil structure, increasing biodiversity, and supporting sustainable land use. Phytoremediation provides a low-cost
and less intrusive substitute for conventional cleanup techniques, which frequently entail high-energy procedures, chemical treatments, or considerable excavation, as the globe struggles with the growing danger of environmental deterioration. Rapid industrialisation, urban waste, and natural activities can introduce large quantities of highly toxic organic pollutants, including
petroleum hydrocarbons, nitro and halogenated aromatic compounds, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), dibenzofurans and dibenzop-dioxins (PCDD/Fs), solvents, explosives, and pesticides, into both aquatic and soil ecosystems (Tanwir et al., 2021). One of the major challenges to reducing water pollution is the presence of heavy metals including cadmium (Cd), lead (Pb), and chromium (Cr) in industrial and agricultural runoff. Associated with other pollutants, these metals disrupt aquatic ecosystems at the species and community levels, which has an array of negative impacts on animal and human health. The World Health Organization (WHO) has emphasized how important it is to keep an eye on these chemicals in drinking water because of their link to serious health concerns including cancer, respiratory disorders, and cardiovascular illnesses.

8.1. Phytosanitary Capacity Evaluation (PCE): The Tool, and Its Relation to Invasive Alien Species

Phytosanitary Capacity Evaluation (PCE) is a diagnostic tool enabling a country to assess the weaknesses and strengths of its phytosanitary system in relation to its ability to fully implement the International Plant Protection Convention and other international phytosanitary obligations. PCE has also been applied as a cross-disciplinary tool among the sanitary, phytosanitary and food safety areas in the Andean subregion. Since “quarantine pests”, as defined by the convention, constitute a subset of invasive alien species, PCE results are already useful in relation to invasive alien species. PCE methodology has the potential to be further developed to cover a country’s needs in implementing Article 8(h) of the Convention on Biological Diversity.

Article XX of the International Plant Protection Convention establishes the agreement by contracting parties to promote the provision of technical assistance to facilitate implementation of the IPPC. Phytosanitary Capacity Evaluation (PCE) is the first tool approved by the Interim Commission of Phytosanitary Measures to address that commitment, assisting contracting parties to perform a needs assessment and identification of their constraints for achieving full implementation of the IPPC at the national level.

Introduction

Banana is the forth ranked agricultural crop in the world and first among fruits. A large number of pests and diseases threaten banana production. The major constraints in production are diseases and pests transmitted through the conventional planting materials. Although the average yield for bananas worldwide is over 40 t per hectare, production in India averages only 20 t per hectare. The nematode parasites are among the most important pests on commercial and subsistence banana production and their control remains difficult, as the nematodes are involved in the destruction of primary roots that disrupt the anchorage system resulting in toppling or uprooting of plants. The most widespread and important are burrowing nematode, Radopholus similes, some species of root lesion nematode, Pratylenchus coffeae and P. goodeyi, species of root knot nematode, Meloidogyne incognita and M. javanica; the spiral nematode, Helicotylenchus multicinctus, H. mucronatus and semi endo-parasitic nematode Rotytlenchus reniformis.

14.1 Introduction

The observation of phytosociology deals with the germination of growth on tree species in the industrial effluents. It shall be calculated germination potential based on germination capablility of the seeds. The growth parameters are measured then calculated leaf weight ratio, stem weight ratio, root weight ratio, top dry weight, sturdiness quatient, volume index and quality index. The following sub chapters dealing with formulae used to calculate the above parameters. The data so collected is then analyzed. The usual methods, which are employed in analysing the data, are averages, dispersion, skew ness, correlation, etc. The leaf weight ratio, stem weight ratio and root weight ratio are calculated by using the following formulae made by Kumaran (1991).

Introduction

Phytosterols, phytostanols and their esters are a group of steroid alcohols and esters that occur naturally in plants as nonsaponifiable fraction of plant oils. Phytosterols (including plant sterols and stanols) cannot be synthesized by humans, and all plant sterols and stanols in the human body therefore originate from the diet. They are known to have several bioactive qualities with possible implications for human health. Their properties for reducing blood cholesterol levels, as well as their other beneficial health effects, have been known for many years. It was recognized in the 1950s that plant sterols lower serum concentrations of cholesterol. Plant sterols might also protect against certain types of cancer such as colon, breast and prostate. Scholarly reviews have all confirmed the health benefits and safety of phytosterols.

People with high blood cholesterol levels are typically advised by health professionals to exercise and consume a diet high in fiber and low in saturated fats and cholesterol. Although these measures can reduce blood cholesterol, sometimes they don’t go far enough. Other cholesterol-lowering interventions may be needed, including cholesterol-lowering medicines or adding phytosterol esters to the diet. The primary phytosterols in the diet are sitosterol, stigmasterol, and campesterol and typical consumption of plant sterols is approximately 160 – 400 mg/day. The enrichment of foods with phytosterols is one of the recent developments in functional foods to enhance the cholesterol-lowering ability of traditional food products.

11.1 Introduction

Phytosterols or plant sterols are bioactive plant constituents having similar chemical structure and biological functions as cholesterol (cholest-5-en-3b-ol), but differ in their side chain configuration. They are non-nutritive compounds with chemical structure differing from that of cholesterol only by minor modifications like in the structure of their side chain by a methyl or ethyl group at C-24. Sitosterol and campesterol have an ethyl and a methyl group at C-24, respectively (Fig. 11.1). Phytosterols present a tetracyclic ring and side chains linked to C-17 that differ according to sterol compound same as cholesterol, to which they resemble structurally as well as biosynthetically. Saturated form of sterols referred to as stands, occurring in small amounts, mainly in cereals are represented by the absence of the double bond at the D5 position. Phytosterols represent a part of the broad group of isoprenoides and are 28- and 29-carbon atom steroid alcohols naturally occurring in plants. Phytosterols and phytostanols are triterpene compounds, found ubiquitously in plants which can only be synthesized by plants, whereas humans and animals obtain them from their diet.

Abstract
Phytotechnology, particularly through the utilization of plankton such as phytoplankton, offers innovative solutions to pressing environmental challenges, including pollution control, resource scarcity, and climate change. These microorganisms excel in carbon sequestration, pollutant removal, nutrient recycling, and resource recovery. They can address issues like eutrophication, heavy metal contamination, and oil spill degradation, while also contributing to biofuel production, agricultural enhancement, and the development of high-value products. However, large-scale implementation faces several challenges, including energy-intensive processes, high costs, resource competition, and environmental safety concerns, particularly the risks associated with genetically modified organisms. Progress in genetic engineering, photo bioreactor design, and integration with wastewater treatment systems, along with collaboration among scientists, policymakers, and industries, is essential for overcoming these challenges. Strategic investments have the potential to fully harness the capabilities of plankton as sustainable agents for environmental restoration and resource recovery.
Keywords: Phytotechnology, Planktons clean-up, Plankton recovery, Remediation

Introduction

Plants are the main source of nutrition to farm animals for their maintenance and production. But, under certain conditions, plants intoxicate farm animal life due to the presence of some deleterious substances called phytotoxins. Such plants include a variety of fodder plants (Jowar, wheat straw, Lucerne), grasses (Millet grass), ornamental or fencing plants (Crotons, Nerium sps) and weeds (Tribulis) in the farm premises.

Introduction

Plants are the main source of nutrition to farm animals for their maintenance and production.  But, under certain conditions, plants intoxicate farm animal life due to the presence of some deleterious substances called phytotoxins. Such plants include a variety of fodder plants (Jowar, wheat straw, Lucerne), grasses (Millet grass), ornamental or fencing plants (Crotons, Nerium sps) and weeds.

(Tribulis) in the farm premises.
Generally, farm animals avoid such plants and weeds due to their unpleasant taste and offensive odor but during fodder scarcity caused by drought, floods or overgrazing, animals consume these plants. In addition, animals introduced into new areas, stall fed animals also sometimes lose their sense of discrimination and ingest such plants containing phytotoxins.

INTRODUCTION

Phytotoxin literally means “plant poison”; it may refer to any toxin produced by a plant. Phytotoxins generally have allelopathic effect. Allelo-chemicals when added/released to substratum may be directly or indirectly harmful or beneficial to the growth and development of the associated vegetation or to the source plant itself. The definition of allelopathy accepted by the International Allelopathic Society is; “any process involving secondary metabolites produced by plants, algae, bacteria and fungi that influence the growth and development of agricultural and biological systems” (Torres et al. 1996). Allelo-chemicals are defined as bio-communicators suggesting the possibility of active mixtures, because of the findings in which single compounds are not active or are not as active as a mixture (Macias et al. 1998). 

8.1 Introduction

In the modern world, the most elementary desire of every common man is to have sufficient food and mental peace. With the increasing world population, pressure on both peace and availability of food are continuously increasing. Advancing agricultural research can explore a possibility to feed to all living beings. Agricultural crops are highly susceptible to climatic conditions and crop productivity which are mainly influenced by extreme weather conditions; including temperature and water availability. In open field conditions, during long dry weather condition, soil moisture reduces and increases the transpiration.

Plants are very important to all forms of life on the earth because they consume carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and produce oxygen. In addition, plants make up the base of the food web. Basically, plants need five things in order to grow and these are: sunlight, proper temperature, moisture, air and nutrients. These five things should be provided by the natural or artificial environments where the plants live. If any of these elements are missing, they can limit plant growth. If any environmental factor is less than ideal, it limits the plant›s growth. People began putting plants indoor to avoid the damage from cold weather and this practice led to development of greenhouse. With the improvement in living standard and upgradation in agricultural technologies, off seasoned cultivation is also possible by providing desired artificial environmental conditions. The environmental stress weakens a plant and makes it more susceptible to disease or insect attack. In the modern engineering era, plant production systems have become more sophisticated. The desired climatic condition to grow plants and its control have changed from manual to automated digital operations and control computers have become faster and more capable.

Environmental control techniques are essential for protected cultivation and are not only for greenhouse’s cultivation but are also applicable to tissue culture and space farming as well. Environmental control in the present protected crop cultivation practices has been profusely supported by computer and sensor developments which is sometimes aslo called controlled environment agriculture.

The preservation of food in common salt or in vinegar is known as pickling. It is one of the most ancient methods of preserving fruits and vegetables. Pickles are good appetizers and add to the palatability of a meal. They stimulate the flow of gastric juice and thus help in digestion. They are prepared with salt, vinegar, oil or with a mixture of salt, oil, spices and vinegar.

Pickles:- Pickles are a product which is prepared by using the common salt or vinegars of fruits and vegetables. It is a good appetizer and adds to the palatability of a meal. It’s also help full to stimulating the flow of gastric juices and thus helps full indigestion. Pickles are mainly preserving by salt, vinegar, oil and it can also be preserved by the mixture of salt, spices, vinegar and oil.

Ingredient of 1kg mango pickles: Mango piece 1kg, salt 150g, fenugreek powder 25g, turmeric powder 15g, nigella seed 15g, red chilli powder 10g, clove headless 8 number, black pepper 15g, cumin 15g, cardamom large 15g, aniseed powder 15g, asafoetida 2g and mustard oil 350ml.

Pickles known to be good appetizers, aid digestion and pallate are edible products preserved and flavoured in a solution of common salt and vinegar. Spices and oil may also be added. There are a number of pickles very popular in India i.e. mango pickle, cauliflower pickle, lime and lemon pickles, ginger chilli pickle etc. But, some pickles like Sauerkraut are not very common in India but are very popular in European countries.

ABSTRACT

Picrorhiza kurroa Royle ex Benth.is a perennial herbaceous plant species of the family Scrophulariaceae growing at high altitude regions of Himalayas, and recorded to have a wide application in Ayurvedic system of medicine known by the name of kutki. In traditional system, this plant species is used to cure disorders of liver, respiratory tract fever, dyspepsia, chronic diarrhea and scorpion sting. P. kurroa is a growing source of interest because of having number of interesting activities such as immnunomudulatory, hepatoprotective and anticancer, highly used by pharmaceutical companies for development of new molecules and herbal botanical formulations. It has been scientifically validated that this species is a repository of bioactive chemicals such as picrosides, kutkoside, and cucurbitacins isolated and characterized mainly from the roots of this plant. This communication deals with the chemistry and biological activities associated with its main chemical constituents, and can be helpful in development of new drug as medicine. This communication will provide a baseline information and useful tool for researchers who work on the area of natural products, and look for new direction in drug discovery.