eChapters

Hybrid Rice

People’s Republic of China announced the successful development and use of F1 rice hybrids in the late 1970s. The first hybrid rice combinations were put into commercial production in China in 1976. Since then commercial exploitation of hybrid rice attracted the attention of researchers around the world. It is accepted that about 20% yield advantage of hybrid rice would be usually required to meet the extra cost of seed production and the future rice demands of a growing world population. Realizing the prospects of hybrid rice, IRRI intensified research on this and organized an ‘International Symposium on Hybrid Rice’ on 6-10 October 1986 at the Hunan Hybrid Rice Research Centre, Changsha, China where Prof. Yuan Longping and his co-workers had made their names in development of hybrid rice. The proceedings were brought out in form of a book entitled ‘Hybrid Rice’ in 1988 by International Rice Research Institute, Philippines. This book documents the information exchanged, and presents for the first time, in English, much of the Chinese literature on hybrid rice.

ABSTRACT

Leaf N and chlorophyll (Chl) concentration of crop are important indicators of plant nitrogen status. Laboratory determination of plant tissue N is time consuming and costly. Also remote sensing is quickly becoming recognized as a valuable tool that has the potential to asses a wide variety of physiological properties over a large area in a short amount of time. This study examined the relationship of sorghum and bajra canopy reflectance spectral response to its nitrogen and chlorophyll content. The study consisted of two nitrogen level (N₀ : no nitrogen and N₁: recommended dose of nitrogen for each crop) for two crops (sorghum and bajra) . Chlorophyll and N content were measured throughout the growing season for both crops. Reflectance at increased significantly as N fertilizer rate decreased. Chl and N were strongly related to canopy reflectance for either individual wavelength or for spectral vegetative indices or ratios. Sorghum nitrogen fertilizer rate mainly affected leaf reflectance at 575 and 623 nm, while bajra at 565 and 657nm. The reflectance values at 581 and 603 nm had the highest correlation with sorghum leaf N concentration. Similarly, bajra leaf N concentration was highly correlated with 619 and 696 nm. Sorghum and bajra leaf N concentrations were highly correlated with reflectance ratio of R₅₈₁/ R₃₈₁ (r²= 0.44*) and R₆₁₉/R₄₆₂ (r²= 0.78***) respectively with greatest r² value. Similarly, Sorghum and bajra leaf Chl concentrations were highly correlated with R677/R527 (r²= 0.63**) andR688/R409 (r²= 0.71***) or R615/R411 (r2=0.71***),

respectively. Thus our results suggest that spectral reflectance measurements hold promise for the assessment of some physiological parameter at the leaf level real time monitoring of sorghum and bajra N status and N fertilizer management.

Introduction

Food quality control systems in all sectors of food chain around the globe are driven by guidelines to help the authorities to enforce rules and regulations to protect the public from fraud and deception in various levels of food production and facilitate fair trade. This also helps authorities to select suitable options of infrastructure and enforcement mechanics. Such documentation provide possible infrastructure and approaches to national food control systems to use them or further improve them wherever needed (Temesgen, 2015). To make a food control system most effective; it is strengthened by improving the existing fragmented legislation, multiple jurisdictions, and weaknesses in surveillance, monitoring and enforcement in many countries. Organisations like FAO and WHO help enforce food laws and regulations to meet a country’s sanitary as well as phytosanitary requirements.

Generally, food law may be divided in two parts: (i) a basic food act, and (ii) regulations. The Act itself give broad principles, while regulations contain detailed provisions governing the different categories of products coming under the jurisdiction of each set of regulations. Detailed provisions are needed for effective administration of and enlightened compliance with the basic food laws. In governments where there is a division between the responsibilities of the legislative and executive branches, the legislative branch enacts the basic law, while detailed regulations are elaborated and promulgated by the executive agency or agencies responsible for administering the law. Regular revisions of regulation is necessary because of novel scientific knowledge, change of processing technology, or quick action to protect public health. Such revisions can be made much more expeditiously by executive agencies than by legislative bodies. In some of the countries food standards are a part of the regulations; in the other countries they are separate enactments.

Introduction

India has vast livestock resources. Livestock sector includes animal husbandry, dairy and fisheries sector. Livestock provides livelihood to two-third of rural community and employment to about 8.8 % of the population in India. Livestock sector contributes 4.11% GDP and 25.6% of total Agriculture GDP. It provides milk and milk products, meat and meat products, and also constitutes a major supplier of food and food articles, raw materials, and finished products.

The purpose of technological advancement these days is to make our lives comfortable. But many of the new inventions have added more stress to our lives and have made our lives increasingly more complex and complicated. Even more needs and demands seem to be built into our daily lives. These demands have affected the mental health, wellness, and psychological well-being of people living in our society.

These days, many advances have been made in eradicating disease, poverty, and other problems that have plagued our society, with the strains of modern living. Insecurity, worry, unhappiness, etc., have increased and have made mental illness our number one health problem. Anxiety and tension have increased so much that one out of every ten persons in our society has started taking tranquilizing drugs in one form or another.

The cases of mental illnesses have also increased these days, as shown by the admission records of the mental hospitals. These conditions have given birth to many psychological problems that are related to mental health. In this chapter, we are going to study those problems.

Abstract

Excessive use and treatment of soil with pesticides under the adage, “if little is good, a lot more will be better” has played havoc with human and other life forms and can also cause populations of beneficial soil microorganisms to decline, which indirectly affect soil fertility. Soil constitutes a major environmental sink for many pesticides. These pesticides are either taken up from soil by plants and then pass into the bodies of invertebrates, water or air, directly or indirectly and affect public health and beneficial biota of the ecosystem. Bioremediation provides very attractive, eco-friendly and economic solution to many of our hazardous pollution problems. For both economic and ecological reasons, biological degradation has become an increasingly popular alternative for treatment of hazardous wastes.

Introduction

Tuberose (Polianthes tuberosa) occupies an important position among commercial ornamental bulbous crops, because of its highly fragrant flowers which can be used in various ways and is essentially a florists flower. The white tubular flowers emit the most popular odour and hence are cultivated on a large scale in some parts of the world for the extraction of its highly valued natural flower oil. The lingering delightful fragrance and excellent keeping quality are the predominant characteristics of this crop. It is popularly known as Rajanigandha, derives its generic name from the greek word Polios, which means white or shinning and anthos meaning a semi perennial bulbous plant. It is commercially cultivated for cut flowers and loose flowers trade and also for extraction of its highly valued natural flower oil. The serene beauty of the flower spikes, bright white flowers, sweetness of blooms and delicacy of fragrance of this ornamental crop, transform the entire area into a nectarine and joyous one. Fresh flowers and value added products of tuberose are exported from India to USA, Germany, United Kingdom, Italy, The Netherland, Japan, United Arab Emirates and Saudi Arabia.

Foodgrains are a fine example of diversity of nature with many varieties and varied features. They are storable food commodities and lend themselves to numerous processing manipulations. Nutritionally foodgrains are rich source of almost all known nutrients and several phyto-chemicals. The increasing incidence of metabolic diseases are attributed to unbalanced energy rich diets lacking in fiber and protective bioactive compounds such as micronutrients and phyto-chemicals (Prakash, 2013). Cereals along with pulse combinations constitute an important part of human diet in many parts of the world because of easy availability, low cost, long shelf life and nutritional balance. During recent past, India has made significant progress in improving the food security of its masses. The green revolution of 60’s helped the country in achieving the food security by improving the availability and access components (Kaul et al., 2016). However, surplus quantity of food produced is not uniformly distributed and the quality component is not addressed properly which has a direct impact on nutrition. In spite of surplus production of foodgrains still malnutrition persists. However, it can suitably be overcome by combining cereals with good quality pulses and other value addition techniques which will go long way in solving the problem of malnutrition. Even though country is producing large quantity of coarse grains particularly maize but its utilization for direct consumption is very low which is mainly due to poor quality of protein. Although maize contains higher proportion of protein (10-12 %), its quality is poor as compared to that of protein in rice due to presence of high concentration of alcohol soluble protein fraction ‘prolamine’ also known as ‘Zein’ in the endosperm. Zein is very low in some essential amino acids, mainly lysine and tryptophan which contribute to more than 50% of the total protein. On the other hand, very high amount of leucine and imbalanced proportion of isoleucine contribute to poor quality of protein in normal maize. To overcome such deficiencies, scientists developed Quality Protein Maize (QPM) where the quality of protein is not only higher than the common maize, but also significantly higher than that of other cereal grains. In the recent past QPM has got special distinction among the cereals due to presence of high amount of essential amino acids like lysine and tryptophan. QPM can be utilized for diversified purposes in food and nutritional security as infant food, health food, convenience food, specialty food and emergency ration. In India maize is consumed mainly in the form of boiled corn or roasted as pop corn. In order to increase the proportion of maize for direct consumption, several traditional food-processing and preparation methods can be used at household level to enhance the bioavailability of micronutrients in maize based diets. These methods include alkali cooking, thermal processing, mechanical processing, soaking, germination/ malting and fermentation. In countries like Central America and Africa, it is converted into food products by grinding, alkali processing, boiling, cooking and fermentation (Srilakshmi, 2008).

Loose Smut
Sphacelotheca cruenta
Diagnostic Symptoms
• Affected plants can be detected before the ears come out.
• Shorter than the healthy plants with thinner stalks and marked tillering.
• Ears come out much earlier than the healthy.
• Glumes are hypertrophied and the ear head gives a loose appearance than healthy.
• Sorus is covered by a thin membrane which ruptures very early, exposing the spores even as the head emerges from the sheath(Fig-1).
Etiology
Scientific Classification
Kingdom : Fungi
Division : Eumycota

1. Introduction
Global food security threatened by climate change is one of the most important challenges in the 21st century to supply sufficient food for the increasing population on diminishing agricultural land while sustaining the already stressed environment. Global agricultural production is highly vulnerable as key crops such as maize, wheat, rice, and legumes will be negatively affected by climate change. The study showed that each degree Celsius increase in global mean temperature is estimated to reduce the average global yield of cereal crops by 6-15%. Further, predicted changes in climate may affect water availability and key soil processes such as respiration and nitrogen (N) mineralization, thus key ecosystem functions such as carbon (C) storage, nutrients, and water availability. Although crop growth simulation models are being utilized to understand the impact of climate change scenarios on aboveground biomass, the roots and their architecture, which are essential for plant adaptation and productivity, need to be studied more due to the difficulty of observing them during the plant life cycle. The root system and its architecture are highly responsive to external environmental conditions such as soil moisture, nutrients, temperature, pH and microbial communities; therefore, it is high time to study below-ground responses to future climate scenarios. The study of plant roots represents a highly promising yet underexplored area of research related to plant growth. While the aerial parts of plants have received significant attention due to their visibility and accessibility, the underground portions have been largely overlooked due to the challenges in observing and sampling them and the disruption caused when roots are removed from the soil. Plants’ efficiency of water and mineral nutrient uptake largely depends on how effectively new root tips penetrate soil horizons and how these roots eventually die and decompose. The plant’s ability to access soil resources depends on the size of its root system and the activity of its growing root tips. Root growth is influenced by both genetic factors and environmental conditions. For example, fine root dynamics vary with the seasons, with increased vegetative growth and nutrient release occurring during the monsoon months. (Kumar et al., 2020). Further research is needed to assess how different tillage and water management practices affect rooting behaviours, soil water extraction, and nutrient uptake.

3. 1 Introduction

Irrigation efficiency evaluates how effectively the water has been distributed for the purpose of crop production. Water is conveyed to crop field through canal water courses and channels. During this process considerable amounts of water get lost through run off, deep percolation, evaporation, etc. The losses of water greatly depend on the skill of the irrigator, degree of land preparation, and design and planning of the system. The extent of water losses starting to diversion of water from its source to crop field though conveyance and ultimate application and distribution of water in crop field which can be estimated separately. The estimation of these efficiencies enables one to identify the step(s) where improvement is required. The method of measurement and evaluation for its efficiency is prerequisite for proper use of water. Irrigation efficiency in developing countries in general is poor particularly in gravity irrigation methods. However, water is become more and more scarce. Due to pressing need of it judicious and efficient management is one of the vital issues to be solved on priority basis.

Introduction

Increasing fresh water demands for ever growing population and it has increased by 600% over the past 100 year (Wada, et. Al, 2016) the annual increment rate 1.8 % whereas the present growth rate is less, only 1 % but this figure may be optimistic. The global water demands will grow significantly over the next two decades in all three components as: Industry, domestic and agriculture (U.N, 2018) industry and domestic demand will grow faster than agriculture, but agriculture demands will remain largest (U.N, 2018). The global water demands for all purpose will increase 20% to 30% by 2050, up to 5,500 to 6,000 km3 per year (Burek et.al, 2016), whereas, agricultural demands will increase by 60% by 2025 (Alexandrators and Bruinsma, 2012).

1. Introduction
Sustainable crop production describes farming practices that do not negatively impact the environment, biodiversity, natural agroecosystem, or the quality of the crops produced. Growing crops sustainably improves the system’s capacity to sustain long-term, steady, and uniform levels of food production and quality without raising the need for or increasing the demand for agricultural inputs necessary for effective management. Sustainable crop production deals with keeping the soil healthy with the integrated approach of maintaining organic matter, protecting biodiversity while reducing use of pesticides, ensuring food safety and food quality. It is an approach to grow food to feed our population without adversely affecting the natural ecosystem, soil and biodiversity, natural resources, environment etc. Since the soil is one of the key natural resources for food production, establishing and preserving soil health is crucial for agricultural sustainability and ecosystem function. The distinction between soil quality and health is quite narrow, and the phrases are sometimes used interchangeably. The “fitness for use,” “capacity of a soil to function,” or “the ability of the soil to serve as a natural medium for the growth of plants that sustain human and animal life” are some basic definitions of soil quality (Karlen et al., 1992; Pierce & Larson, 1993; Doran & Parkin, 1994; Acton and Gregorich, 1995; Karlen et al., 1997). Assessment of soil health by analyzing different associated attributes is necessary to monitor its status. However, soil health or quality evaluation focuses on the physical, chemical, and biological parameters which are highly interlinked to one another. All the parameters have their significant effect in governing overall soil health. This chapter will discuss the chemical parameters only which are very much important for the sustainable crop production and have very crucial role in determining the soil health. It will cover important chemical parameters, essential plant and soil nutrients, heavy metals, agrochemicals etc. which having significant effect on soil health determination

1.1. INTRODUCTION

In this chapter, we will know how to classify raw data. The purpose of classifying raw data is to bring order in them so that they can be statistically analysed easily. Classification of objects or things saves our valuable time and effort. It is done in a logical manner and similar things are arranged into a group or class.

Introduction

Agroforestry offers both adaptation and mitigation options to climate change especially for the poor rural communities in the developing world. It is now getting ample attention from different investors, scientists, policy makers and international bodies due to its multiple benefits to the environment; and remain an important component of sustainable land use in agricultural production. Agroforestry provides economic, environmental, and social security to the vulnerable communities who are dependent on agricultural production for their livelihoods, and on forest/ trees for their energy requirement. Agricultual production is vulnerable to climate change, and there is a need to cushion these communities to be less vulnerable to climate change, or natural hazards. The suitable, sustainable and smart method is agroforestry based agriculture which offer host of ecosystem services to cope the vagaries of climate change, particularly in rural areas.

1. Introduction

Among the various well associated morphological units in plants, the reproductive units demand maximum protection which is achieved in pollen grains (also in spores) by encasing the germplasm with a well organized wall with a unique structure and ornamentation. Apart from its functional significance, the wall bears important characteristics which are of immense diagnostic and phylogenetic values. The morphological diversities in pollen and spore organization are greatly exemplified in the vascular plants. The term ‘Palynology’ was coined by Hyde and Williams in 1944 for the science of pollen studies, which include the study of pollen as well as spores. Although some investigators tend to limit the scope of palynology to morphological investigations but others include pollen analyses of peats, coals, honey, and rocks as well as the resulting conclusions drawn from this information, and in a wider sense it is also connected with the pollen chemistry.

The wall of pollen and spores is a very peculiar substance which is resistant to the destructive action of corrosive acids and alkalis and is readily preserved in nature under suitable conditions. The shape, size, and ornamentation or sculpturing of pollen has been the subject of study since the invention of the microscope. Pollen morphology is therefore greatly utilized in interpretation of ancient floras, for determining authentic species phylogeny, distribution and climatic conditions under which they grew, based upon the pollen content of the matrices. Pollen which lodges in moss tufts and lichen mats, or falls in water and gradually sink, or those that fall on sphagnum and clays particularly under anaerobic conditions, are well preserved. This pollen is not destroyed in the transformation of peats to lignite or clay in shale and thus has been preserved for hundreds of thousands of years.

During the present century pollen morphological studies are substantiated and elaborated magnanimously with the aid of Electron microscopy. The surface configuration and finer details are being accurately analyzed for their proper application in plant taxonomy as well as in microfossil diagnosis.

1. Introduction
The global demand for seafood has surged in recent decades, driven by population growth, rising incomes, and an increasing awareness of the health benefits associated with seafood consumption. In response, the aquaculture industry has expanded rapidly, making it one of the fastest-growing food production sectors in the world. As aquaculture continues to scale up, the need for sustainable and nutrient-rich feed ingredients has become a central concern. Traditional feed ingredients, such as fishmeal and soy, have significant environmental and ethical challenges. Fishmeal, derived from wild-caught fish, contributes to the depletion of marine resources, while soy cultivation is associated with deforestation and high water usage.
In this context, algal biomass has emerged as a promising, sustainable alternative to traditional aquafeed ingredients. Often referred to as a “superfood,” algae, which include both microalgae and macroalgae (seaweeds), offer a rich source of essential nutrients that support the growth, health, and productivity of farmed aquatic species. Algal biomass is increasingly recognized for its unique ability to provide a wide range of proteins, essential fatty acids (such as omega-3 and omega-6), vitamins, minerals, and bioactive compounds that are critical to the optimal functioning of fish and other aquatic organisms.

Abstract

Women are amoungst one of the most vulnerable groups, being impacted by climate change. Socio- cultural barriers and traditionally ascribed roles make them the key person responsible for arranging primary resources such as fuel, water, food which face a serious threat from environmental stresses such as climate change. Women with the potential in terms of experience and a strong body of indigenous knowledge to combat the increased disaster risks enable their families to cope with climate change. To deal with these stressful situations women both at the local and global level adopt various coping strategies. The coping strategies adopted by them generally involves considerable amount of risk taking as they interfered not only with the household work but also with their income generating activities, education of girls and other opportunities for skill development. This chapter gives a comprehensive view of the gendered impact of climate change, as well as the coping strategies of women. The chapter also highlights the need of developing coping mechanisms into adaptive mechanism and strategies to provide a sustainable solution to deal with the issue of climate change.

Keywords: Coping strategies, Climate change, Gendered impact, Women

Many developing countries, for example India, China, Thailand, Brazil, Mexico, Egypt and South Africa, utilise the so-called modern biotechnology, based on genetic engineering and genomics. Agricultural biotechnology is the most widespread biotechnology in developing countries, but only a few of them are able to carry out all of the research and development activities leading to the commercialization of genetically modified seeds. These include basic research in molecular and cell biology and genetics, greenhouse and field trials according to  internationally agreed biosafety standards, risk assessment and management, respect for intellectual property rights relating to the transferred genes and to the creation of new crop varieties, production of genetically modified (GM) seeds by private corporations or working in cooperation with the public agricultural research sector, extension activities aiming at delivering the new seeds to the farmers and biovigilance in the fields of GM crops so as to detect any abnormalities or any hazards caused to the environment and to conventional crops (Sasson and Elliot, 2004).

INTRODUCTION

Kiwifruit (Actinidia deliciosa Chev.) also known as Chinese gooseberry, China’s Miracle Fruit and The Horticultural Wonder of New Zealand, belongs to family Actinidiaceae. It is native to Yangtze valley in north-west Hupeh and Szechuan provinces of China. The kiwifruit of international commerce are large – fruited selections of Actinidia deliciosa Planch and Actinidia deliciosa (A. Chev.) 
C F Liang and A. R. Ferguson. The name kiwifruit was derived from the kiwi, a flightless bird and New Zealand’s national symbol. Although this fruit vine originated in China, yet its full economic potential was exploited by the New Zealanders, which accounts for over 70 per cent of world trade. In other countries of the world, its cultivation gained momentum after 1960’s and now is cultivated on a commercial scale in USA, Italy, China, Japan, France, Germany, Chile and Australia

Kiwifruit is a perennial climbing or scrambling vine. Fruits are rusty brown with hairy surface and looks like a sapota fruit. Flesh is light green in colour with decorative pattern of lighter colored rays radiating from the center and embedded in between are many small, soft and dark seed. It is mostly eaten as fresh fruit or combined with other fruits in salad and desserts.