eChapters

The International Union for the Protection of New Varieties of Plants (UPOV) based in Geneva, Switzerland and established in 1961 is an intergovernmental organization to provide and promote an effective system of plant variety protection, with the aim of encouraging the development of new varieties of plants, for the benefit of society. For plant breeders' rights to be granted, the new variety must meet four criteria under the rules established by UPOV as discussed earlier also.

1. Introduction

Viruses are a unique group of infectious agents. They are distinct in their simple, acellular organization; however, they are the connecting link between live and dead. Viruses are also the perfect example of obligate intracellular parasitism. Despite their simplicity, plant viruses are extremely important and drawn attention of researches because they can be used as model to study the disease establishment and progression mechanism, reproduction inside the host and trilateral host-virus-vector relationships. Their small genome also gave liberty to extensively understand the genome evolution caused by the genetic exchange or recombination. As a consequence, this will help in the development of facile methods for management and control of new emerging viruses and their strains.

This chapter is written for the beginners and students of virology subject to provide the fundamental knowledge about the origin, history of plant virology, the general features of plant viruses, their structure, shape and size, mode of spread and development of their management strategies. Besides this, the new development of non-conventional methods for developing virus-resistance in plants has also been explained for enhancing the quality and production of commercial crops in the country.

Plant–water relations concern how plants control the hydration of their cells, including the collection of water from the soil, its transport within the plant and its loss by evaporation from the leaves. Flow of water through plant and soil over macroscopic distances is driven by gradients in hydrostatic pressure. Over microscopic distances it is driven by gradients in water potential. Evaporation of water from leaves is primarily controlled by stomata, and if not made good by the flow of water from soil through the plant to the leaves, results in the plants wilting. Plant water deficit is initiated as the crop demand for water exceeds the supply. The capacity of plants to meet the demand and thus avoid water deficit depends on their “hydraulic machinery.” This machinery involves firstly the reduction of net radiation by canopy albedo, thus reflecting part of the energy load on the plant. Secondly, it determines the ability to transport sufficient amount of water from the soil to the atmosphere via the stomata in order to provide for transpiration, transpirational cooling and carbon assimilation. Water is transported by way the soil-plant-atmosphere continuum and it is largely controlled by the resistances in the continuum as determined by root, stem, leaf, stomata and cuticular hydraulic resistances. The gross effects of deficient and of excessive soil moisture on plant growth are well known, but controversy has existed for many years around the question whether the so-called “‘available moisture” is equally available for plant growth or available only with such increasing difficulty that plant growth functions are retarded before the wilting point is reached. Various measurable aspects of plant growth do not respond in the same manner to increasing moisture stress. Crops will respond to irrigations, although measured soil moisture stress is quite low. Problems of relating plant growth to soil moisture stress conditions varying with both time and soil depth are considered. Soil factors affecting density or depth are reviewed and several ways weather factors influence soil, -moisture-plant-growth relations summarized.

INTRODUCTION

The purpose of writing this chapter is to develop a comprehensive understanding of the role of functions of water in plant growth and development. Water is essential to life on earth as the living organisms contain 80-90 per cent water. A typical crop or grassland will transpire approximately 500 ml of water per 10 g of dry matter produced. Water has a tremendous effect on the environment near the earth, which on regional basis we call ‘climate’. Ecological importance of water is due to its physiological importance because water affects the plant growth through physiological processes. All metabolic activities in the plant cell or tissue depend on water status of the plant. For example, in a maturing seed, respiration rate is highest as it moves towards maturation stage, water content decreases and hence rate of respiration slow down. At the harvesting stage, when the water content is 10-20%, the respiration rates become negligible. Now in a stored seed if the water content will be high it will result into higher respiration, thus release energy, which will increase the temperature and will finally destroy the seed.

A novel approach to immunisation is edible vaccines that work by using plants as bio factories to create immunogenic proteins that, when ingested, can provide immunity. The idea is to genetically modify plants such that they express genes that code for pathogen proteins or antigens. Then, because they stimulate the synthesis of vaccine components within their tissues, these genetically engineered plants serve as vaccine delivery vehicles. The hepatitis B vaccination served as the model for immunogenicity in humans in the early research on edible vaccines.

“Biodiversity, the planet’s most valuable resource, is on loan to us from our children.”

The significance of Plant Genetic Resources (PGR’s) is on top of agenda of all those who are concerned with food, nutritional and environmental security by using the Earth’s plant - biodiversity judiciously in a vital form. Agro-biodiversity is the backbone of a nation’s food security and the basis of economic development as a whole. The top-down system of agricultural research, where farmers are seen merely as recipients of research rather than as participants in it, has contributed to an increased dependence on a relatively few plant varieties. Global cooperation from farmers to agricultural scientist is critical for maintaining the balance across the agricultural landscape. Over the years this diversity in India is under pressure due to the massive commercialization of agriculture leading to the almost extinction of traditional farming systems and plant- biodiversity is under immediate threat. Behind this commercialization there lies the interest of the breeders for obtaining intellectual property rights. Around 1.6 billion people depend on farm-saved seed, yet up to 75 per cent of varieties of some key crops have already been lost this century. The rate of loss may well increase as global trade rules, intellectual property rights regimes, the concentration of agricultural research and development on inappropriate technological‘solutions’, and now the introduction and promotion of genetically engineered products, all combine to erode local resources from the fields of smallholder farmers. At the moment, it should call for a balancing on research into modern biotechnology, in favour of a redirection of research and development resources into sustainable, environmentally-friendly technologies that, sustain poor people’s livelihoods, agricultural biodiversity and agro-ecosystem functions. In this context, the importance of farmer-derived Agricultural Biodiversity that includes the variety and variability of plants and micro-organisms which are necessary to maintain the structure, processes and key functions of the agricultural ecosystem for, and in support of, food production and food security.

Abstract

The nutrition of tobacco plants relies upon the plant genotypic variation and soil characteristics which also influence the various microflora that inhabit the rhizosphere. The investigations were aimed to analyze the role of native and inoculated plant growth promoting bacteria on the uptake of major plant nutrients viz., nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium and also their supportive nature in reducing the infection caused by  Pythium aphanidermatum, the damping-off fungus of tobacco in nursery. Rhizosphere microorganisms include PGPR viz., Azotobacter, Azospirillum, Pseudomonas and Bacillus, AM fungi and Streptomyces. The addition of these microbes as bioinoculants in tobacco integrated nutrient and disease management resulted in better quality tobacco worth premium price.

Our understanding of plant–nematode interactions has increased significantly. The f irst genome sequences of two root-knot nematodes species, M? incognita and M? hapla, have been described, which were significantly different from genome of the free-living nematode, Caenorhabditis elegans. Both M? incognita and M? hapla have definite set of proteins that determine the virulence in plant species. The secretomes (set of secreted proteins through the stylets) of different phytonematodes have demonstrated a number of effector proteins that are involved in compatible plant nematode interactions (Ali et?al., 2017). In response to infection of various nematodes, plant’s transcriptome resulted in increased metabolic activity in the feeding cells and suppression of defense mechanisms of the plants in most of the cases. Most of these studies revealed considerable progress toward an understanding of plant–nematode interactions under natural conditions.

1. Botanical name of All spice is__________ _________.

   a) Piper nigrum

   b) Zinziber officinale

   c) Curcuma longa

   d) Pimenta dioica

2. Saffron belongs to family _________

   a) Piperaceae

   b) Myrtaceae

   c) Iridaceae

   d) Orchidaceae

Coconut, cocoa (cacao), coffee, cashew, cardamom, black pepper, tea, rubber, oil palm and areca nut are the major plantation crops that are perennially grown along the coastal belt in southern States of the Country and to some extent in high rainfall zones of the northeastern States of India. These crops are also known as perennial crops. The life span of these crops varies from fifteen to sixty years or more depending upon the crop and its management. Coconut and cashew are also popularly known as the coastal trees. Cardamom and black pepper are also known as the spice crops. Once these plantation crops are well established, they mature for fruiting in three to eight years depending upon the nature of plantation crops and the crop management. The reproductive phase is seen round-the-year in case of coconut and cocoa. Cashew is one of the plantation crops with seasonality in fruiting from September to June. Cocoa is mostly grown as an intercrop in coconut gardens and in some pockets as a pure crop. Black pepper is trained to coconut and areca nut in many locations and seen as mono crop as well. All these crops are grown in laterite, sandy and alike in well drained soils. The hill slopes with terrace cultivation are also suitable for all the plantation crops. Tea, coffee and cardamom are seen on hillocks extending up to the base. Some of the plantation crops are seen in multitier cropping system as well as mixed/intercrops/homestead gardens. They are grown mostly under the rain fed and summer irrigation is beneficial for better harvest. The plantation crop distribution, production and productivity are influenced by air temperature, rainfall and the other meteorological variables viz. sunshine, cloud cover, solar radiation, vapour pressure, evapotranspiration, humidity and wind. Interestingly, coffee spread in Wayanad District while cardamom in Idukki District. Coffee experiences unimodel rainfall while bimodal in the case of cardamom.

Coconut is the most important palm of the wet tropics as a  major source of vegetable oil which also provides food, health drink, medicine, shelter, fuel, timber and fibre.  Because of its versatile nature, it is eulogised as ’Tree of Heaven’, ‘Tree of Life’, Kalpavriksha, Tree of Abundance, Natures supermarket and king of palms.  Oil is extracted from dried endosperm  which is called ‘copra’. The unopened flowering spathe, on tapping process, yields a delicious sap (Coconut Inflorescence Sap) rich in sugars and vitamin B, is called toddy from which sugar syrup and many products can be extracted.  An intoxicating drink called arrack can be prepared by distilling fermented toddy. The hard endocarps of fruits supply fuel and charcoal and mesocarp yields fibre for coir industry. Leaves are used for thatching houses.  Young unopened leaves are used to decorate festive places.

1. GENERAL INFORMATION

International Group for the Genetic Improvement of Cocoa (INGENIC) formed in 1993.

Central Coconut Research Station (presently CPCRI) was established in 1940.

Central Plantation Crops Research Institute (CPCRI), Kasargod, Kerala established in 1970.

CPCRI hosts International Coconut Gene Bank for South Asia under the umbrella of Coconut Genetic Resources Network (COGENT) of the Biodiversity International.

National Active Germplasm Site for coconut: CPCRI.

United Planter’s Association of Southern India (UPASI) started in 1893.

Branch of International Rubber Association was established in 1948 at Kottayam, Kerala. It was renamed as Indian Rubber Institute in 1987.

Rubber Research Institute of India, Kottayam established in 1995.

Introduction

Plantation crops are high value industrial crops with great economic importance and play vital role in trade. It contributes to environment protection and sustains a large number of agrobased industries. It has great potential for utilization of waste lands in varied agro-ecosystems like rainfed, dryland, hilly, arid and coastal, providing higher employment opportunities, nutritional security, eco-friendly, high potential for foreign exchange earnings and above all providing livelihood security to people. They contribute 25% of AGDP. Major plantation crops grown in India are coconut,cardamom,cinchona, arecanut, oilpalm, cashew, palmyra, rubber, cocoa, tea and coffee. These crops grown between 20° N and 20° S of equator occupy nearly 3.2 million ha with a production of 9.8 million tonnes. All these crops are perennial in nature and demand  labour round the year. All plantation crops enter international trade and all of them have a long juvenile period. Coconut, arecanut and cashew are cultivated by individual land  owners who are not organized to the same extent as  planters of tea, coffee and rubber.

These crops are cultivated in an extensive scale in large contiguous areas, owned and managed by an individual or a company and whose produce is utilized only after processing e.g. Coffee, Tea, Rubber, Coconut, Cocoa, etc.

Purpose: It is important that the plants occupy the same position where the pegs were placed in the field. At the time of planting the tree the peg is removed first followed by pit making to receive the plant. The plant may be with the ball of earth or without the ball of earth. While planting the tree in the pit there is every possibility that plant may not occupy the same position where the pegs were originally placed. In order to overcome this problem planting board is used. Use of a planting board ensures the planting of the plant in the correct position.

Materials and equipments: Spade, khurpi, planting board, wooden pegs and chain.

Biodynamic farming is a holistic agricultural approach that integrates celestial rhythms, including lunar phases and astrological cycles, into farming practices to enhance soil health, plant growth, and farm productivity. Central to this practice are planting calendars and guides, which help farmers align their activities with cosmic rhythms. Additionally, cropping systems in biodynamic farming are designed to optimize resource use, improve soil fertility, and promote ecological balance. This article explores the principles and practical applications of planting calendars and guides in biodynamic farming, examines various cropping systems employed in biodynamic agriculture, and discusses their impact on farm management and sustainability. By understanding these elements, farmers can effectively incorporate biodynamic practices into their agricultural systems, contributing to more resilient and productive farming operations.

Guava planting has historically followed a 5 m × 5 m or 6 m x 6 m spacing, providing 278 to 400 plants per hectare in a square planting pattern. Growth, productivity, fruit quality, and leaf nutritional content are just a few of the management characteristics of guava orchards that are greatly impacted by this traditional spacing method. CISH, Lucknow, has recently launched a novel meadow orchard system that comprises growing guava at a greater density of 5000 plants per hectare with a spacing of 2.0 x 1.0 metres. Regular topping and hedging techniques are used in this innovative approach, especially in the early phases of orchard development. Techniques for topping and hedging are essential for regulating tree size and increasing fruit supply. By using strategic management techniques to maximise tree size and fruit output, this meadow orchard system offers a more intense approach to guava cultivation than standard planting methods. It also provides improved plant density. This method’s introduction is a reflection of continuous attempts to improve guava growing methods and adjust to changing agricultural practises.
9.1 Low Density Planting
When planting guava, low-density planting differs from traditional or higher-density planting in that the guava plants are spaced widely apart and accommodates about 100-250 plants/ha. According to several studies, this strategy has a number of benefits that are essential for the best possible orchard management and acquires commercial production potential after 7-10 years of planting. According to Singh and Yadav (2014), guava trees are typically planted with a spacing of 6 to 8 metres between rows and 3 to 5 metres between trees within a row in low-density plantings. This spacing and planting density encourages a more open and well-ventilated orchard layout. (Singh & Yadav, 2014). The advantages of low-density planting are numerous, as Paramesha and Ravishankar (2013) have shown. Better fruit quality is the outcome of increased photosynthesis fostered by improved light penetration. Furthermore, the improved air circulation lowers the risk of illness, giving guava trees a better habitat. Additionally, less rivalry among trees promotes greater water and nutrient absorption, which increases tree vigour and productivity overall