eChapters

Pneumonia was once one of the most dreaded diseases known to man. It is no longer so. But pneumonia is still a serious disease. Germs causing pneumonia re of various types, such as streptococcus, staphylococcus, and pneumococcus varieties. Certain viruses are also responsible at times.

Pneumonia may be defined as an acute infectious disease of the lung, caused by the micrococcus lanceoaltus affecting principally the parenchyma.

Etiology

The subfamily Pneumovirinae includes two genera: Pneumoviruses and metapneumovirus. The later consists of both human and avian metapneumovirus (aMPV). aMPV produces turkey rhinotracheitis (TRT) in turkey and Swollen head syndrome (SHS) in chickens. aMPV has been detected in other species of birds, but the disease in those birds are not well defined.

Occurrence Species

A new disease of turkeys (in the UK since 1985) which is suspected to cause some lesser problems in chickens.

Introduction

Podocytes are highly specialized cells with a complex structure that plays an important role in kidney physiology. The characteristic feature of these cells is that its cell body has foot processes which interdigitates with the foot processes of another podocytes leaving filtration slits in between them. These filtration slits are bridged by the slit diaphragm which is an extracellular structure. These cells are located on the outer surface of glomerular basement membrane (GBM) and thereby they check the protein loss. The cell body of these cells contain nucleus, golgi apparatus, smooth and rough endoplasmic reticulum, lysosome and mitochondria. Their main function is in establishing the selective permeability of the glomerular f iltration barrier. Several molecules, including nephrin, CD2AP, FAT, ZO-1, P-cadherin, Podocin, and Neph 1-3 have all been shown to be associated with the slit diaphragm (SD) protein complex, and some of these molecules are critical for its integrity. In cases of chronic disease podocytes gets loosen and they separate from the surface of glomerular basement membrane (GBM). Podocyte injury frequently leads to reorganization of the slit diaphragm and reorganization of the foot process structure. Disturbances of podocyte architecture results in retraction of its foot processes which leads to proteinuria. This may be thelater progress into acquired glomerular diseases. The approach to regenerate podocyte and develop a mechanism of podocyte specific drug delivery system by understanding the molecular mechanism of podocyte function appears a promising area for treatment of proteinuric kidney diseases in future.

Poinsettia (Euphorbia pulcherrima) is one of the most popular ornamental pot plants belonging to the family Euphorbiaceae. The botanical name Euphorbia pulcherrima means very beautiful. Euphorbia pulcherrima the name originally given by German botanist Karl Ludwig Wilenow was changed to “Poinsettia” in honour of “Mr. Poinsett” in 1836 by William Prescott. Poinsettia is a short-day, non-food and non-feed vegetatively propagated ornamental plant. Poinsettias are fascinating winter blooming small shrubs or trees which can grow anywhere from about 0.6 to 5 m tall. The coloured bracts of poinsettia plants are actually leaves. Colours of the bracts can be red, pink, orange, white or marbled. These coloured bracts are caused by photo-periodism. Poinsettias have also been called the lobster flower and the flame-leaf flower due to the red colour. California is the top U.S. Poinsettia-producing state.

ORIGIN AND DISTRIBUTION

The poinsettia (Euphorbia pulcherrima) is the world’s most economically important potted plant but despite its preeminence it is not clear which wild populations are ancestral to the varieties cultivated around the world. Tradition holds that the U.S. envoy to Mexico, J. R. Poinsett collected the progenitors of the over 300 varieties in global cultivation on an 1828 excursion to northern Guerrero State, Mexico. It is unknown whether the contemporary cultivars are descended from plants from Guerrero or whether germplasm from other parts of poinsettia’s 2000 km long distribution entered into cultivation during the nearly 200 years of subsequent poinsettia horticulture.

The combination of nuclear and plastid haplotypes characterizing cultivars was found only in northern Guerrero. Whereas, distribution modeling indicated that suitable habitat conditions for wild poinsettias are present in this area consistent with their likely wild status. Finding shows that the area of northern Guerrero as the cultivated poinsettia’s probable ancestral region congruent with the traditional account attributing the original collections to Poinsett (Trejo et al., 2012). Poinsettias are originally native to the central and southern parts of Mexico where they grow as a shrub up to 5 m. The poinsettia was introduced to the United States by Mr. Poinsett in 1828. It was introduced into North America in1838 from Mexico and since that time it has achieved considerable economic importance as a pot plant in the florist trade.

Poinsettia (Euphorbia pulcherrima) is one of the most popular ornamental pot plants belonging to the family Euphorbiaceae. The botanical name Euphorbia pulcherrima means very beautiful. Euphorbia pulcherrima the name originally given by German botanist Karl Ludwig Wilenow was changed to “Poinsettia” in honour of “Mr. Poinsett” in 1836 by William Prescott. Poinsettia is a short-day, non-food and non-feed vegetatively propagated ornamental plant. Poinsettias are fascinating winter blooming small shrubs or trees which can grow anywhere from about 0.6 to 5 m tall. The coloured bracts of poinsettia plants are actually leaves. Colours of the bracts can be red, pink, orange, white or marbled. These coloured bracts are caused by photo-periodism. Poinsettias have also been called the lobster flower and the flame-leaf flower due to the red colour. California is the top U.S. Poinsettia-producing state.

1.1 Write True/False

Q.1    The process of knowing all the relevant information from the known sample to the unknown population, is known as “Statistical Inference.”
Q.2    An enquier may be completely unknown to some feature of the population but he may want to guess completely about that feature based on a random sample drawn from the population. This type of problem is known as the “Problem of Estimation.”

The pointed gourd (Trichosanthes dioica Roxb, Cucurbitaceae) is an Indian tropical vegetable crop. It’s called as parwal, palwal, or parmal in different parts of India and Bangladesh, and it’s one of the region’s most significant vegetables. Eastern Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, West Bengal, Assam, Odisha, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Gujarat, and some hilly portions of Telangana, Andhra Pradesh, and Tamil Nadu are among the states where the crop is commonly farmed. The entire cultivated area is 56 million hectares, while the total production is 798 million hectares (2018-19). Due to its well-established dioecism, perennial nature, and vegetative modes of multiplication, the pointed gourd is physically unique from other cucurbitaceous species.

Poisoning
Poisoning is defined as the harmful effect that occurs when a toxic substance is ingested, inhaled, absorbed through the skin, or injected into the body. This can involve a wide range of substances, including medications, chemicals, gases, and natural toxins from plants and animals. The severity of poisoning can vary significantly depending on the nature of the toxin, the amount of exposure, and the individual’s health status. Poisoning can occur through various means and can involve a wide range of substances. Understanding the different types of poisoning is essential for prevention, diagnosis, and treatment.
Types of Poisoning
1. Chemical Poisoning Chemical poisoning is one of the most common forms and typically involves exposure to toxic substances found in household products or industrial chemicals.
• Household Chemicals: Common items such as cleaning products (bleach, ammonia), pesticides, and solvents (paint thinners) can be harmful if ingested or inhaled.
• Industrial Chemicals: Exposure to chemicals used in manufacturing processes can lead to serious health risks.
2. Drug Poisoning Drug poisoning occurs when medications are taken in excessive amounts or when non-prescribed drugs are used.
• Prescription Medications: Drugs like beta-blockers, anticoagulants (e.g., warfarin), and certain antidepressants can be toxic in high doses.
• Over-the-Counter Medications: Common medications like acetaminophen can cause liver damage if overdosed.
• Illicit Drugs: Substances such as cocaine, heroin, and methamphetamine can lead to severe health consequences, including overdose and death.

9.1 Introduction

Many physical parameters such as pressure, temperature, electric current etc. can be measured using polarization-modulated sensors. In these sensors modulation of state of polarization of light in the sensing region by an external stimuli takes place. A variety of physical effects influence the state of polarization of light. These phenomena are Faraday effect, electro-optic effect and photo-elastic effect. Polarization modulated sensors, in some cases, offer significant advantages not only over conventional sensors but also over widely used fiber optic interferometric sensors. These sensors require control over the state of polarization of light entering the sensing region of the fiber. Thus, for these sensors, highly birefringent fibers or single mode fibers are used. In this chapter we shall first discuss magneto/electro-optic effects and then shall describe sensors for the measurement of electric current/ magnetic field, voltage, pressure, temperature etc. utilizing polarization modulation.

Compounds having one or more asymmetric carbon atoms can rotate the plane of polarized light. Such compounds are called optically active. Measurement   of this property is called polarimetry.
 
The magnitude and direction in which the plane of polarized light is rotated depend on 1.The nature  of the compound, 2. The  concentration of the solution, 3. The path length of light, 4. The solvent, 5. The wave length of light and 
6. The temperature. These variables are related and can be presented in the formula

A TTO fills the important intermediary position of linking research institution with industry so that innovations and new ideas can reach market. To be able to facilitate that effectively, the institutions must have well-defined R&D policies that include Sponsored R&D, Collaborative R&D, and Grant-in-Aid R&D. These ensure that the research remains properly managed, regulatory compliance assured and aligned with institutional priorities. This chapter has discussed about key policies that can help in successful operation of TTO while aligning institution’s mission and interests Various core policies that help in successful technology transfer include:
• Intellectual property policy
• Technology transfer policy
• Revenue sharing policy
• Startup/Spinout/Venture creation policy
• Conflict of interest/Conflict of commitment policy
Each policy has specific objectives. These policies collectively ensure a clear and consistent framework for technology commercialization.
11.1 Intellectual property policy
An IP policy is a formal document that provides guidelines for managing IP by an organisation. A strong IP policy build trust by ensuring efficiency and transparency. Other benefits of IP policy includes creation of environment to encourage innovation and commercialisation of IP. It also lays foundation to set out the rules for public-private partnerships while addressing issues among various stakeholders and ensures compliance. IP Policy is not law, but a proposed course of action.

14.1 Changes in policy and strategy

14.1.1 Policy changes

In the discussion on land use planning we suggested that the ideal pattern of development is to establish a long-term national or regional policy, which leads to medium-term strategies, and short-term tactical operations. In the real world a curious situation is arising in that the adoption of the new land husbandry approach is growing so fast that the practitioners have moved ahead of the politicians and opinion formers, with the result that the implementation of strategies by Non-Government Organisations, aid agencies, and senior field officers, is helping to shape new policies.

There is always the problem that national policies ought to be long term, but are created by politicians usually working within a short time frame to the next election. Fortunately, the land husbandry approach allows planners at all levels from farmers to governments to appreciate the long-term issues.

The new approach was mentioned in section 9.2.1 in connection with land use planning. It is summed up in the slogan From soil conservation to land husbandry, and two reviews using that title list the main points as the need for:

Natural farming in India is witnessing growing acceptance, driven by concerns over environmental sustainability, soil health, and human well-being. To accelerate this transition away from chemical-intensive practices, both central and state governments, along with NGOs, have initiated comprehensive support systems that include policy frameworks, training, financial aid, and market facilitation.
A cornerstone of India’s natural farming policy is the Bharatiya Prakritik Krishi Paddhati (BPKP), launched under the Paramparagat Krishi Vikas Yojana (PKVY). This centrally sponsored scheme empowers states to implement natural farming by offering financial and technical assistance. States like Andhra Pradesh, Himachal Pradesh, Gujarat, and Maharashtra have led in adopting cluster-based natural farming models with large-scale training and demonstration programs.
Farmer training is central to adoption. Institutions such as Krishi Vigyan Kendras (KVKs), agricultural universities, and NGOs conduct extensive workshops on techniques like Jeevamrit, mulching, intercropping, and water conservation. Learning is made accessible through practical exposure, model farms, and local-language manuals, supported by digital tools like mobile advisories and community radio.
Support mechanisms include input subsidies for cow-based formulations, certification under Jaivik Bharat, and marketing linkages. Farmer Producer, Organizations (FPOs) facilitate input procurement, processing, and branding, while digital platforms improve market access and price realization.

Definition of advocacy, approaches to policy advocacy-advising, media campaigning, lobbying, Activism, Information Education Communication (IEC) and Behavior Change Communication (BCC), Advocacy for Rural Advisory Services (RAS), Policy advocacy strategy
Introduction
The word “Advocacy” is defined as any action that promotes, urges, justifies defends, or pleads on behalf of another person is referred to as advocacy. In all its manifestations, advocacy works to make sure that people, especially those who are most sure people, especially those who are most at risk in a group or society can:
• Have their opinions taken into account when decisions about their lives are being made
• Speak up for matters that are important to them.
• Defend and protect their rights
• Have their voice heard on key subjects.

To look into the nutritional security around the globe, FAO and WHO, have undertaken the analysis of policies. They have covered many issues which include; World Summit on Food Security, pillars of food security and availability, access, utilization, stability, effects of food insecurity, stunting and chronic nutritional deficiencies, depression, anxiety and sleep disorders. There are many challenges to achieve food security. These include global water crisis, land degradation, climate change, agricultural diseases, food versus fuel, politics, food sovereignty, food wastes, risks to food security, population growth, fossil fuel dependence, homogeneity in the global food supply, price setting, land use change, global catastrophic risks, agricultural subsidies and role towards children.

It is a systematic method to solving problems through an examination of policy approaches.
It involves evaluating public policies, including their development, implementation and impacts, to determine their effectiveness in achieving desired outcomes. The process includes identifying relevant issues, assessing potential solutions, weighing the costs and benefits and recommending the most appropriate course of action.
Use of Policy Analysis in Decision-Making
Policy analysis combines qualitative and quantitative methods to assess policies’ implications on economic, social and political factors. It often includes stakeholder analysis, forecasting future scenarios and evaluating policy impacts using tools like cost-benefit analysis, risk assessment and statistical modeling

Introduction

Agriculture stands as the primary pillar of the global economy and serves as the cornerstone for food and nutritional security, yet it generates substantial amounts of waste. This agricultural waste, including food processing waste, crop residues, animal waste, and agricultural chemicals, amounts to approximately 998 million tons annually worldwide. In India alone, around 500 million tons of crop residue are produced yearly, with a significant portion utilized for fodder and fuel, while a surplus of 140 million tons remains, with approximately 92 million tons being burned annually. However, there has been a historical oversight in efficiently harnessing this energy within the agricultural sector (Sinha et al., 2021). Agricultural waste management is a critical issue in India, given the country’s vast agricultural sector and the substantial amount of waste it generates. Effective management of agri-waste not only mitigates environmental pollution but also contributes to sustainable agricultural practices and economic development through resource recovery and energy production (Gupta et al., 1998). The Indian government, recognizing the significance of this challenge, has developed a comprehensive policy framework and regulatory mechanisms to address agri-waste management. These policies aim to promote the efficient utilization of agricultural residues, reduce greenhouse gas emissions, and enhance soil health through the recycling of organic waste. The current chapter explores various India’s policy framework and regulatory landscape in agri-waste management, highlighting the strategies, challenges, and opportunities within this crucial sector.

The policy development process is a structured approach to creating policies that address specific issues or achieve particular goals. It involves several steps, from identifying the problem to implementing and evaluating the policy
Steps of Policy Development Process
1. Problem identification
• Definition: The process of recognizing and defining an issue that requires government intervention.
• Key actors
• Public: Citizens, interest groups and communities often raise awareness about problems.
• Media: Plays a critical role in highlighting issues and shaping public opinion.
• Policymakers: Government officials, legislators and public administrators who prioritize issues.
• Experts and academics: Provide data, research and analysis that help frame problems.

Agrochemical Sector is Transforming

Over two lakh crores of India’s agricultural production—roughly 20% of overall production—are lost to pests and diseases. In order to safeguard farmers’ crops in this situation, agrochemicals might be quite important. Even though India uses very little agrochemicals domestically (less than 0.5 kg/ha), it is the world’s fourth-largest producer of agrochemicals.

n the post-COVID era, there is ample opportunity for agrochemicals to emerge as one of the key export sectors capitalising on changes in global supply chains. The government has already identified the agrochemicals industry as one of the 12 Champion sectors to watch, and by 2026, the agrochemicals market is projected to grow to a valuation of around $7.4 billion.

Two decades after India’s independence, during the 1960s, the formal seed sector in India was dominated by the Public sector. It was in 1961 that the National Seeds Corporation (NSC) was established under the Ministry of Agriculture and was at the centre of seed production of breeders, foundation and certified seeds and their quality control. In furtherance of their control in the seeds sector, the National Seeds Project (NSP) was undertaken by the Indian Government in 1967 along with the assistance of the World Bank. In the sixties, the traditional crop breeding and seed production programmes were significantly transformed and modernized with initiation of hybrid development programme in maize, sorghum and pearl millet and introduction, breeding and release of semi dwarf high yielding varieties of wheat and rice.  Indian Seeds Act was enacted in 1966 ensuring official release of varieties and their quality seed production