eChapters

Genus : Carya
Species : illinoensis (Wangenh) K. Koch.
Family : Juglandaceae
Chromosome No. : 2n = 32

Unlike other temperate nut fruits which have been in cultivation for long history of pecan cultivation is just about one hundred years, and in this short period pecan nut has gained huge popularity on account of its sweet nutty flavour and superb tree characteristics that is symmetrical form, luxuriant dark green shinny foliage with added ornamental value. Pecan nut is a remarkable highly valuable gift of North America to the horticulture of the world, and presently occupies fifth position among the leading nut fruit crops. In United States of America, pecan is recognized as ‘Queen of Nuts’

Genus : Castanea 
Species : avellana
Family : Fagaceae
Chromosome No. : 2n = 24

Before the history was started to be written chestnut nuts in Japan and China were harvested, collected and eaten and aptly has been an important food for man around the world especially in Asia, Asia Minor, Europe and North America for hundreds of years. As early as 50 B.C., chestnut was brought to southern Europe by Greeks from Asia Minor and red Indians in North America prior to its discovery. Used nuts of chestnut was a staple food especially during famine times.

Genus Castanea has 13 species and belongs to the family Fagaceae which also has important forest plants like Oak (Quercus), and beech (Fagus). Species of this genus are grown for ornamental and also for their edible nuts. Three species of chestnut are economically important as they produce edible nuts, are highly variable and selection has been practiced for hundreds of years to select high yielding, large fruited type. The species other than C. dentata (American chestnut) are called ‘Chinkapins’.

Genus : Corylus 
Species : avellana L.
Family : Betulaceae
Chromosome No. : 2n=2x=28

European filbert Corylus avellana L, is known by several names common being Cob, cobnut, hazel, Spanish or Lambert nut, which has been due to its origin, fruit shape, husk and the general appearance. ‘Filbert’ has also come from name ‘full beard’ as the nut of commerce is fully enclosed by the long husk. It is this husk or involucres which very often has been used to distinguish between various species and cultivars. Corylus the genus has been derived from korys which indicate bonnet, hood or helmet and there are several other views of its name being derived after the name of some renowned places. The word ‘hazelnut’ is from anglosaxon haesel meaning hood. Further the term hazelnut is used in European and Filbert in Asian countries for and its other species. However in America, the term is used to refer to three native species C. archericana, C. californica and C. cornuta. Filbert is an important member of birch family, Betulaceae which has a long history of cultivation (8000 to 5500 B.C.). 

Genus : Pistachia 
Species : vera L.
Family : Anacardiaceae
Chromosome No. : 2n = 30

Among the nut crops Pistachio nut (Pistacia vera L.) occupies a significant place for its delectable and nutty flavoured kernels which in large quantity is imported to India mainly from Iran and Afghanistan. On account of its demand for very exacting climatic requirements the crop has failed to establish successfully in number of new regions where efforts were made to introduce this crop, despite the fact that it resists drought and adverse soil conditions much better than more important fruits of the family Anacardiaceae. Pistachio trees are long lived but grow very slowly in early years of its plantation compared to many of the deciduous fruit trees. Alternate bearing is also a wide spread phenomena in this crop. Pista is a fruit of temperate region and can withstand wide fluctuation in temperature. The exact place of its origin though not definite, is often regarded to be indigenous to central Asia, where large stands of wild pistachio trees are found growing in abundance.

Genus   : Macadamia
Species : integrifolia Maiden and Betch
Family : Protaceae 
Chromosome No. : 2n =28

Macadamia nut is known as ‘Australian Nut’ or ‘Queensland Nut’ because of its origin in the rainforests of New South Wales and Queensland. The crop is sensitive to frost hence the site which suits orange and lemon tree cultivation is also good for macadamia. Macadamia through cultivated commercially in Australia it is in Hawaii that maximum improvement and advancement in terms of selection of superior cultivars has taken place and in short time of about 100 years macadamia culture has become a very fruitful entrepreneur. Presently there is huge gap between the macadamia nut demand and supply therefore efforts are being made to introduce macadamia into other tropical and subtropical parts of the world.

Genus : Malus  
Species : domestica (Borkh.)
Family : Rosaceae 
Chromosome No. : 2n = 34, 51, 68

Like many other fruit crops, apple too is a very old crop in cultivation. Theophratus as early as third century B.C. has indicated that the Greeks and Romans knew apple culture and among the temperate fruit crops, apple is the most ubiquitous of all fruits and is extensively grown all over the world. Huge genetic variability present has permitted the better adapted types to be selected for plantation under different agro climatic conditions.  Through continuous selection both from wild population and also from hybrid seedlings, varied types or varieties have been selected, some are suitable for cultivation in warm temperate regions and others for extreme cold conditions.  This has resulted/added to the gene pool of desired types of apples enormously. At present cultivars are available destined for specific purposes like dessert, cooking, juice, cider and for large number of other uses.

Genus : Pyrus 
Species : communis L.
Family : Rosaceae 
Chromosome No. : 2n= 34

Pear like apple is also a prehistoric crop and unlike apple its cultivation in Europe started much before that of apple at an early time. According to Homer (1000 B.C.) the ancient Greek said that pears were one of the “gifts of god’s”. Romans also enormously added to the knowledge of pear cultivation. Pliny in Rome had described 35 cultivars (23-79 AD). The variation in fruit characters described earlier match to the range of fruit characters which are found in presently grown commercial cultivars. In Europe for its buttery soft texture and distinct aroma many consider European pear as the most detectable of all temperate fruits, while the Asian pears for their firm crisp texture and juiciness are preferred more in China and Japan – their native place. Pears are readily consumed as fresh, dried, cooked or as preserves or to make perry and pear wine.

Genus : Cydonia / Pyrus
Species : oblonga Mill. vulgaris Pers. 
                cydonia L.
Family : Rosaceae 
Chromosome No. : 2n= 34

The fruit of pome class referred as Cydonia oblonga (also Pyrus cydonia) is an ancient fruit and yet its significance is not fully recognized and crop has received very less attention. There is hardly any mention of this old fruit in respect of its merit, its cultivation or in the form of some standard literature. One reason could be that amongst pome fruits where quince is placed, better fruit form, raw eating quality persisted, which markedly restricted quince improvement. Quince fruit lacks dessert class except when cooked but is commercially used for flavouring, in preparation of jellies marmalade and preserves. However in near East and Persia, quince cultivation is highly improved through the selection of better varieties which are eaten raw.

Genus : Prunus 
Species : persica Batsch
Family : Rosaceae
Chromosome No. : 2n = 16

The peach, Prunus persica (L) Batch is unique among the temperate fruits as it is adaptated to varied climatic conditions and it is for this reason that peach and its close relative the nectarine, in a short period has spread rapidly to different parts of the world. Peach is a tree of temperate zone, but has attained higher quality (fruit colour, taste etc.) in areas where the summer temperatures are relatively warm to hot. With the discovery of low chill types ‘Honey’ and ‘Peen to’ forms from southern China, peach cultivation has been spread to warm temperate regions of the world. Normally peach requires from 500-1000 hours of cold/chill hours below 7.2oC for growth and flowering in the spring. Peach history as a garden crop in China is well documented, and forms varying in flesh colour (white, yellow or red), free stone or cling stone, flower colour, large and showy flower type seen presently were also present at very early time i.e. the beginning of the present century.

Genus : Prunus 
Species : armeniaca L.
Family : Rosaceae
Chromosome No. : 2n = 16

Of all the temperature fruits belonging to tribe pruneae, apricots after cherries are more exacting in their climatic requirements. For this climate specific, apricots are often described as a fruit that fails where other fruits grow successfully. Apricots lavish continental climate, which is characterized by low rainfall (50 cm per year), warm summers and without much variation in winter temperatures and this winter temperature in temperate regions remain close to -33o C. Apricot trees are said to be drought resistant and can sustains low atmospheric humidity but is very sensitive to low soil moisture content.

Genus : Prunus 
Species : domestica institia L. 
                saliciana Lindl.
Family : Rosaceae
Chromosome No. : 2n - 48

Of all the stone fruits, plums are the most varied. They belong to the genus Prunus of the subfamily Prunoideae of the family Rosaceae. All plums have a basic chromosome number of x=8. Plums and related species have been placed in the subgenus Prunophora section Euprunus and Prunocerasus. Six species have been placed in the section Euprunus. Their chromosome number range from diploid to hexploid and are native to the land extending from Europe to China. Thirteen species native to the North American continent are all diploid in nature and have been placed in the sections Prunocerasus. Separation of the plums into the two sections does not appear to have any genetical basis since the species appear to be closely related. Prunus domestica, the European plum, is believed to be the most recent crop species to have arisen within the section Prunophora. Prunus insititia.

Genus   : Prunus
Species : avium cerasus, mahaleb L.
Family : Rosaceae
Chromosome No. : 2n = 16, 24, 32

Records indicate that cherries were in cultivation ever since the beginning of civilization. Cherries exhibit vast genetic variability as is evident from the different species which vary in their ploidy level. Sweet cherries (Prunus avium L) are diploid while sour cherries (P. cerasus, L.) are tetraploid, and commercially more important than the other species. Duke cherry has resulted from hybridization between sour and sweet cherry with intermediate tree and fruit characters. Successful cherry cultivation revolves around climatic factors, prime being the extent and spread of rainfall, variation in day and night temperature, occurrence of frosts, high heat day largely determine the type of cherry that will grow successfully in a particular areas. Hence cherry improvement around the world has so far been localized to few selected areas where different cherries have been successfully grown.

Genus : Olea 
Species : europaea L.
Family : Oleaceae
Chromosome No. : 2n=2x=46

Amongst the fruit crops, Olive is undoubtedly one of the world’s oldest cultivated crop and its cultivations dates back to 3000 B.C. and till date is recognized as a symbol of peace and prosperity. Olive is an evergreen subtropical plant, but for flowering and fruiting it does require chilling as most of the temperate fruits do. Although slow to grow, olive is a very long lived plant and with its typical dense foliage of olive green and silvery leaves also serves as an ornamental type. The centre of origin includes Palestine, Lebanon, north west Syria and Cyprus. The Greeks and Roman were well aware of the significance of olive oil during 900 to 600 B.C. and oil was considered as a luxury item in body anointment. From its native place olive established itself in the Mediterranean region especially Italy, Spain and from here to other parts of the world.

1. Introduction

Medicinal plants are rich source of novel drugs that forms the ingredients in traditional systems of medicine, modern medicines, nutraceuticals, food supplements, folk medicines, pharmaceutical intermediates, bioactive principles and lead compounds in synthetic drugs (Ncube, 2008).  In recent years, antibiotic resistance has become a global concern. This drives the need to screen medicinal plants for novel bioactive compounds as they are biodegradable, safe and have fewer side effects (Prusti et al., 2008). Higher plants, as a source for new potential drugs is still largely unexplored and screening of active agents helps to design the lead molecule later in drug development.

Aegle marmelos(L.) Corr., belongs to the family Rutaceae, and is popularly known as Vilvam tree (Tamil) (Gamble, 1935; Mathew, 1983). It is an indigenous tree found in Iran, India, Myanmar, Pakistan, Bangladesh and most of Southeast Asian countries (Singh, 2009).  A. marmelos has been used from time immemorial in traditional systems of medicine for relieving diarrhoea, dysentery, stomachic, digestive, astringent, peptic ulcer and respiratory infection (Nadkarni, 2000). The fruit, leaves, bark and root are edible and possess medicinal values. The unripe dried fruit used to be astringent, digestive and stomachic, the ripe fruit is aromatic, cooling and is used as laxative.

1. Introduction

Gloriosa superba L. (Liliaceae) is a striking tuberous climbing plant with brilliant wavy-edged yellow and red petaled flowers. Glory lilies are grown commercially for a chemical compound, colchicine. The annual foreign exchange through the export of glory lily seeds is estimated to be Rs.100 crores (Alice and Sundravadana, 2012). It is used as anthemirtic, alexiteric and useful in ulcers, piles, abdominal pains and itching. It has abortifacient, anti-pyretic, anti-inflammatory and anti-leprotic properties (Gupta et al., 2005). Leaf blight disease was first noticed in  G.. Superba in West Bengal, India in 2004. The leaf blight disease was observed during June to September. Early symptoms appeared as small, circular to oval, light brownish spots, 2-6 per leaf, scattered at the tip, margin and midrib of the leaves. Subsequently the spots enlarged and usually developed into concentric rings. At an advanced stage, the spots became dark brown to blackish in colour, gradually coalesced and became irregular in shape, then the affected leaf blighted completely. The causal organism was found to be a fungus namely Alternaria alternata (Fr.) Keissler. The pathogen is greatly influenced by weather with the highest disease incidence reported in wet seasons and in areas with relatively high rainfall (Meena et al., 2010). The growth of A. alternata was maximum in pH range of 6-6.5 and temperature range of 25-30°C (Hubballi et al., 2010).

1. Introduction

Plants are reliable sources for the treatment of diseases in different parts of the world (Eisenberb et al., 1993; Cowan, 1999; Hostettmann et al., 2000) and they have been unique sources of medicines and constituted the most common use of biodiversity (Hamilton, 2004; Hiremath and Taranath, 2010). Their use contributes significantly to primary healthcare delivery (Holetz et al., 2002) as they are regarded as invaluable sources of pharmaceutical products (Olalde, 2005).

Traditional medicine, with medicinal plants as their most important component, are sold in market places or prescribed by traditional healers in their homes (Von Maydell, 1996). As a result of this strong dependence on plants as medicines, many ethnopharmacological studies have been conducted to determine their safety, efficiency and discovery of new active principles from them. Only, 1,100 plants have so far been thoroughly examined for their medicinal practices in the world (Dobson, 1995).

Herbal medicine have been in use since time immemorial and are still the mainstay mainly in the developing countries because of their better cultural acceptability, better compatibility with the human body and lesser side effects (Kamraj, 2000).

1. Introduction 

Medicinal plants are a basis of huge economic value all over the world. The use of plants and plant products as remedies could be sketched as far back as the beginning of human civilization. The most primitive medicinal use of plants in Hindu culture is mentioned in “Rigveda”, which is believed to have been written between 4500 - 1600 B.C. and is theoretical to be the oldest arsenal of human knowledge (Dhale and Mogle, 2011). Ayurveda is the base of curative science of Hindu culture, in its eight dissection deals with specific properties of drugs and different aspects of science of life and the art of healing (Rastogi and Mehrotra, 2002). Nature has presented on us an affluent botanical wealth and a large number of varied types of plants nurture in different parts of the country. Herbal medicine is still the basis of about 75 - 80% of the whole population. The major part of traditional therapy occupies the use of plant extract and their active components (Akerele, 1993). Secondary metabolites are green medicines present in plants and plant parts that act as defense system against disease inducing organisms or more accurately to protect against disease due to the physiological and biochemical mechanism failure (Alarcon-Aguilar et al., 2002).

1. Introduction

Malaria remains one of the most serious tropical diseases and kills an estimated one to two million people each year worldwide (Snow et al., 2005). Spread of drug resistance has played an important role in the occurrence and severity of epidemic diseases in the world (Majori, 2004). As a consequence of resistance to drugs such as quinine, chloroquine, primaquine and mefloquine, the vehemence of malaria has increased in many endemic regions of the world (Schlitzer, 2007; Basco et al., 1994). One of the biggest challenges to malaria control is the emergence and spread of drug resistant P. falciparum strains. Although human malaria transmitted by female Anopheles mosquitoes has four Plasmodium species as its aetiological agents P. falciparum, P. vivax, P. ovaleand P. malariae, the most widespread and severe disease is caused by P. falciparum, which transiently infects the liver before invading red blood cells of the mammalian host. Clinical manifestations occur at the erythrocytic stage and can include fever, chills, prostration and anaemia, as well as delirium, metabolic acidosis, cerebral malaria and multi-organ system failure, which may be followed by coma and death (Fidock et al., 2004; Deprez-Poulain et al., 2005, De Sa et al., 2009).The success of the natural product-based antimalarials such as quinine and artemisinin has showed the importance of plants as potential source of antimalarial agents. Consequently, numerous efforts to identify antiplasmodial activities from plants traditionally used as remedies for fever and malaria (Chen et al., 1997; Havsteen, 2002;

1. Introduction

India throughout its long history has accumulated a prosperous practical acquaintance of the use of medicinal plants for the treatment of various diseases. Chemical studies on Indian medicinal plants make available a priceless material foundation for the discovery and development of new drugs of natural origin. Contrary to the synthetic drugs, antimicrobials of plant origin are not associated with many side effects and have an enormous therapeutic potential to cure many infectious diseases (Bibitha et al., 2002; Maghrani et al., 2005; Doughari, 2006). Plants are used as a medicine in different countries and are a source of many potent and powerful drugs (Kambizi and Afolayan, 2008). Extraction and characterization of several active compounds from these green factories have given birth to some high activity profile drugs (Mandel et al., 2007). Phyllanthus is a medicinally important genus belongs to the family Euphorbiaceae. A number of plants of this family are observed to be beneficial for the treatment of liver ailments. Phyllanthus reticulatus Poir. is a large climbing shrub growing from 8-10 feet in height. It is used in the traditional medicinal system of our country for treatment of a variety of ailments including small pox, syphilis, asthma, diarrhoea, and bleeding from gums (Kirtikar and Basu, 2003;

1. Introduction

Nothing in the universe is non medicinal everything has its value in its own way. Infectious diseases are an important health hazard all over the world, both in developing and developed countries. Several synthetic antibiotics are employed in the treatment of infectious and communicable diseases. A number of researchers nowadays are working seriously to find out substitutes for antibiotics as they cause side effects on the functioning of different parts of the body organs and systems. Antibiotics are also known to disturb the natural intestinal micro flora, thus depriving the benefits of these microbes to human body. Medicinal plants exhibit antimicrobial activity since they contain innumerable biologically active chemical constituents. The medicinal plant wealth, the strong and time tested traditional medicare systems like ayurveda and the human resource base are the strengths of India. Over the last forty years intensive efforts have been made to discover clinically useful antibacterial/ antifungal drugs (Sashikumar et al., 2003). Over 50% of all modern clinical drugs are of natural product origin (Ates, 2003). Higher plants as sources of medicinal compounds have continued to play a dominant role in the maintenance of human health since ancient times (Farombi, 2003).

1. Introduction

Reactive oxygen species (ROS) is a collective term used for oxygen containing free radicals, depending on their reactivity and oxidizing ability. They participate in a variety of chemical reactions with biomolecule (Kunwar et al.,2011).These free radicals include superoxide anions (O2-), hydroxyl (OH-), peroxyl (ROO), peroxynitrite (ONOO) and nitric oxide (NO) radicals; produced through oxidative process within the body. They can damage both the structure and function of a cell membrane in a chain reaction leading to degenerative disease conditions such as alzheimer, ageing process, cataracts, acute liver toxicity, cardiovascular disease, arteriosclerosis, nephritis, diabetes mellitus, rheumatism, inflammation process and DNA damage that can lead to carcinogenesis (Ghosh et al., 2011).

An antioxidant is a molecule capable of inhibiting or preventing the oxidation of molecules. Antioxidants are substances that may protect cells from the damaging effects of oxygen radicals, highly reactive chemicals that play a part in atherosclerosis, some forms of cancer and reperfusion injuries. Medicinal plants are an important source of antioxidants. The secondary metabolites like phenolics and flavonoids from plants have been reported to be potent free radical scavengers. They are found in all parts of plants such as leaves, fruits, seeds, roots and bark (Chanda and Dave, 2009).

1. Introduction

Seaweeds are the extraordinary sustainable resources in the marine ecosystem which have been used as a source of food, feed and medicine. The number of natural products isolated from marine organisms increases rapidly, and now exceeds with hundreds of new compounds being discovered every year (Chapman and Chapman. 1980, Cheennubhotla et al., 1986; Chennubhotla et al., 1987; Faulkner, 2002; Proksch and Muller, 2006). Several products of algal origin such as alginate, carrragenean and agar as phycocolliods have been used for decades in medicine and pharmacy (Fitton, 2006). Seaweeds are considered as source of bioactive compounds and produce a great variety of secondary metabolites characterized by a broad spectrum of biological activities.  Seaweeds contain various inorganic and organic substances which can benefit human health (Kuda et al., 2002). The in vitro studies on green, brown and red algae confirmed the following potential activities viz., cytostatic, antiviral, antihelminthic, antifungal and antibacterial (Lindequist and Schweder, 2001; Newman et al., 2003; Dhargalkar and Neelam, 2005; Huang et al., 2005; Gonzalez del Val et al., 2001; Espeche et al., 1984).

1. Introduction

Our Indian traditional medicine depends on herbals which always played an important role in the health problems of many countries. In India, the tribal people are using variety of herbals for effective curing of various ailments. These plants are often used by the local people of that area for treatment of various diseases. Ethnomedicinal studies have offered immense value and opportunities for the development of new drugs. Living close to nature, traditional societies have acquired unique knowledge about the use of wild flora and fauna, most of which are unknown to the people who live away from such natural ecosystem as forests and hills. The hills have been the sources of medicinal plants since the time man realized the preventive and curative properties of plants and started using them for human health care.

Tribal people throughout the world, including India, have developed their own cultures, customs, religious rites, taboos, legends and myths, folk tales, medicine, food, etc., They are the repository of accumulated experience and knowledge of the indigenous vegetation; this can be utilized in tribal development. These days greater emphasis is being laid on this traditional knowledge and on using it in the “bioprospecting” of natural products as a new source of food and medicine.

1. Introduction

Atalantia monophylla (L.) DC. is a small tree belonging to the family Rutaceae; resembles Citrus in general aspects and is considered a close wild relative of Citrus. The species is commonly called as wild lime, in Malayalam it is called as Kattunaragam and in Tamil Katuuelumichai. A. monophylla is used in Ayurveda, Folk and Siddha systems of medicine. It is used for the treatment of rheumatoid pain and glandular swelling (Sankaranarayan et al., 2010). The root is believed to be antispasmodic (Kiritikar and Basu, 1999), the leaves are often applied for itching and other skin complaints (Panda, 2004) and acridone alkaloids isolated from roots were reported to have anti-allergic activity (Chukaew et al., 2008). The chloroform extract of leaves has shown antiviral activity (Chansakaow et al., 1996). Besides its medicinal value A. monophylla leaves are used as flavoring agent, berries are used for making pickles, juice of berries are used for dyeing purpose and wood as timber. It is also useful as a rootstock for breeding new cultivars of Citrus Linn. (Guha Bakshi et al., 1999). This species has high medicinal value and the natural population is under threat due to habitat destruction, use of wood as firewood, collection of fruits for making pickles and harvesting of leaves, roots for medicinal purposes by the local communities. Hence there is a need for developing an appropriate conservation strategy for this species.

1. Introduction

The therapeutic efficacy of many indigenous plants for various diseases has been described by traditional herbal medicine practitioners (Bharat and Parabia, 2010). Natural products are the source of synthetic and traditional herbal medicine. They are still the primary health care system in some parts of the world (Mahmud et al., 2010). In India, local empirical knowledge about medicinal properties of plants is the basis for their uses as a home remedies. It is generally accepted by many Indians and elsewhere in the world that beneficial medicinal effects can be obtained by ingesting plant products. Plants bear the basis of many traditional medicines throughout the world for thousands of years and continue to provide new remedies to mankind (Patel, 2009). The World Health Organization (WHO) also encourages, recommends and promotes the use of traditional and herbal remedies in the National Health Care Program because these medicines are easily available at low cost, comparatively safe and people have faith in such remedies (Wani, 2007). Herbal medicines are promising choice over modern synthetic drugs. Due to the serious obsession with the modern medicinal system, people have started looking at the ancient healing systems like Ayurveda, Siddha and Unani (Shankar and Ved, 2003).

1. Introduction

Antioxidants are defined as molecules which can be safely interact with free radicals and terminate the chain reaction before vital molecules are damaged (Nidhi and Gaurav, 2012). Naturally occurring antioxidants to replace synthetic antioxidants which are being restricted due to their carcinogenicity (Abdel Hameed, 2009). The antioxidant phytochemicals such as polyphenols, flavanoids and related compounds found in medicinal plants have received increasing attention for their potential role in prevention of human diseases (Upadhyay et al., 2010).
 
The genus Ophiorrhiza belongs to the family Rubiaceae and consists of about 150 species and distributed in tropical and subtropical Asia. Species of Ophiorrhiza are economically important and many of these species contain a high value anticancerous compound, a cytotoxic alkaloid camptothecin and other valuable alkaloids. Ophiorrhiza pectinata Arn. is a herbaceous plant and is distributed over peninsular India and Srilanka. A preliminary study conducted in O. pectinata also contains this important alkaloid (0.0040mg/g dry wt). Leaves and stem contain traces of hydrocyanic acid. The main objective of the present study is to evaluate the antioxidant and radical scavenging property of the chloroform methanol and water extract of whole plant of O. pectinata. 

1. Introduction

The discovery and development of antibiotics have led to dramatic improvement in the ability to treat infectious diseases with emergence of drug – resistant organisms due to irrational and overuse of antibiotics, failure to complete a course of treatment, genetic versatility of microbes and horizontal transfer of resistant genes among bacterial species had led to antibiotic resistance (Amit and Shailendra, 2006; Aibinu, 2007).The need for alternative antimicrobial agents has renewed the interest on plants as a sources of antimicrobial agents due to their use historically and the fact that a good portion of the world’s population, particularly in developing countries, rely on plants for the treatment of infectious and non-infectious diseases.
 
Syzygium aromaticum

Clove (Syzygium aromaticum) is the aromatic dried flower buds of a tree in the family Myrtaceae. The traditional use indicates that Clove has several therapeutic properties, such as an aphrodisiac, stomach, carminative, nervous stimulant and tonic. Reports has been documented  on their aphrodisiac, antibacterial, antifungal, nematocidal, anti-toothache, anti-oxidant, analgesic, anesthetic and hypotensive properties. Although in Iranian traditional medication several formulation containing clove have been used as a nervous stimulant and cognitive enhancer. (Mohammad, et al., 2009).

1. Introduction

Phytochemicals are compounds present in fruits that are not required for normal functioning of the body, but have a beneficial effect on health or play an active role in amelioration of diseases. Phytonutrients have various health benefits like antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, cancer preventive, antidiabetic and antihypertensive. The pigments of the fruits have many therapeutic benefits including vasoprotective and anti-inflammatory properties, antiproliferative, chemo protective and anti-neoplastic properties, reversing age related deficits (Joseph et al.,1999) and useful in controlling oxidative stress during pregnancies complicated by intrauterine growth retardation (Pawlowicz et al.,2000). Cocculus hirsutus Linn. is a climber and widely distributed in tropical and subtropical climates. This plant is commonly called as kattu kodi in Tamil. It belongs to the family Menispermaceae. The fruit is a drupe which is size of small pea with red purple endocarp (Fig.1a and Fig.1b). The plant is used in treatment of gonorrhea, spermatonorrhea, Urinary troubles, diarrhea and hyperglycemia (Kirtikar and Basu, 2002). The leaves of the plant have been evaluated for anti hyperglycemic (Badole et al., 2006); antibacterial (Panda et al., 2007); diuretic and laxative (Ganapaty et al., 2002). Several isoquinoline alkaloids are present in leaves and roots; the important ones cohirsine, cohirsinine, cohirsitinine, hirsutine and jamtine (Viqaruddin et al., 1987; 1991; 1992; 1993). Since no detail scientific approach has been made to study phytochemicals of cocculus hirsutus fruit. So in the present investigation preliminary

1. Introduction

Mounting pressure of teeming population and shrinking land resources have necessitated the production of increasingly more food per unit area. Insect pests, diseases and weeds are important biotic constraints inflicting 20-25% loss in agriculture production. Synthetic pesticides have of course, played a very significant role in restricting many pest problems. However, their indiscriminate has been its toll by creating several problems like pesticide resistance in insects, contamination of food with toxic residues, resurgence of pests and deleterious effects on non target organisms. The number of effective pesticides available is dwindling day by day further having less choice among which to choose. These ill effects have arised interest in alternate methods of plant protection.

The extent to which various plant species are utilized for pest control depends, not only on their effectiveness against target pests, but also on socio-economic, environmental and policy considerations. Keep these in mind the present study on the efficacy of botanicals against Spodoptera litura was carried out.

1. Introduction
 
Keratinophilic fungi are the natural colonizers of keratinic substances like hair, nail, fur, feathers, hooves, claws, beaks, scales etc. Cattle sheds, garbage, animal burrows, sewage, birds nest, feather and hair dumping sites, poultry farms, public places like parks, schools, market place etc., are the common habitats of these fungi (Ali-Shtayeh and Rana, 2000). They utilize keratin as the sole source of carbon and nitrogen and produce an extracellular enzyme keratinase.

Keratinophilic fungi have been receiving considerable attention in recent days as these include dermatophytes which are potential pathogens causing various diseases in skin and scalp (Weitzman and Summerbell, 1995). Human exposure to these fungi is a matter of health risk. Several non-pathogenic fungi are now being reported as opportunistic pathogen and their occurrence in various environments, where they are naturally occurring is not directly investigated. Although several antifungal drugs are available in the market, its use is being limited due to a number of reasons such as low potency, poor solubility, development of resistant strains and drug toxicity. Hence there is an essential need to evaluate plant extracts scientifically for their medicinal properties to discover more safer and effective antifungal agents.

1. Introduction

India has a rich tradition of plant-based knowledge on healthcare. It is reported that traditional healers use 2500 plant species and 100 species of plants serve as regular sources of medicine (Pei, 2001). Traditional medical knowledge of medicinal plants and their use by indigenous cultures are not only useful for conservation of cultural traditions and biodiversity but also for community healthcare and drug development in the present and future. Medicinal plants have curative properties due to the presence of various complex chemical substances of different composition which are formed as secondary plant metabolites in various parts of the plants such as roots, shrubs, leaves, flowers etc. (Gurib-Fakim, 2006).

A large number of plants are equally used by tribals and folklore traditions in India for treatment of cuts, wounds and burns (Biswas and Mukherjee, 2003). A wound is a type of injury in which skin is torn, cut or punctured, that disturbance in the normal skin anatomy and function. Wound healing consists of orderly progression of series of events that establish the integrity of damaged tissue and thereby the affected parts repair itself after injury. The wound healing herbs encourage blood clotting and induce the healing of wounds (Sudhakar et al., 2003; Nagori and Solanki, 2011; Binu Thomas et al., 2012).

1. Introduction

Medicinal plants continue to be an important therapeutic aid for alleviating the ailments of humankind. The search for eternal health and longevity for remedies to relive pain and discomfort drove early man to explore his immediate natural surroundings to the use of many plants, animal products and minerals etc for the development of a variety of therapeutic agents. Today, there is a renewed interest in traditional medicine and an increasing demand for more drugs from plants sources. This revival of interest in plant derived drugs is mainly due to the current widespread belief that “green medicine” is safe and more dependable than the costly synthetic drugs, many of which have adverse side effects.

Vitex negundo or Five-Leaved Chaste Tree is commonly known as Nirgundi in India. It is a large aromatic shrub belonging to the Verbenaceae family of plants. It is distributed throughout the greater part of India up to an altitude of 1500 m in the outer Himalayas. It is a gregarious shrub that is found abundant along the banks or rivers, in moist situations, open waste lands and near the deciduous forests. It is widely planted as a hedge plant along the roads and between the roads.

1. Introduction

Food poisoning is a major concern for both the food industry and consumers inspite of different preservation practices some species of pathogenic bacteria causes food spoilage leading to outbreak of illness. Spices and herbs have been added to food since ancient times, not only as flavouring agents, but also as food medicine and as food preservative (Nakatani, 1994). Additives need for food preservation may be harmful to human health and has led to use of natural products especially plant extracts, their essential in food preservation.

More than 90 percent of the cases of food poisoning each year are caused by Staphylococcus aureus, Salmonella typhi, Vibrio cholerea, Proteus mirabilis, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Clostridium perfringens, Campylobacter, Listeria monocytogenes, Vibrio parahaemolyticus, Bacillus cereus and Entero-pathogenic Escherichia coli. These bacteria are commonly found on many raw foods and cause severe disorder in humans. Spice posses anti adhesive properties that prevent the microbe to the host tissue, thus preventing the primary infection. It also possesses a rich array of phytochemical and a rich source of antioxidant. Some studies claim that the phenolic compounds present in spices and herbs might also play a major role in their antimicrobial effects.

1. Introduction

Medicinal plants are the most important source of life saving drugs for the majority of the World’s population. Plants have been an important source of medicine for thousands of years. Diabetes is one of the major degenerative diseases in the world today. It is a major risk factor for the development of cardiovascular disease. About 70 - 80% of deaths in diabetic patients are due to vascular disease. Diabetes mellitus is also associated with hyperlipidaemia with profound alteration in the concentration and composition of lipid (Odetola et al., 2006). Changes in the concentration of lipid with diabetes contribute to the development of vascular disease. Excessive levels of blood cholesterol accelerate atherogenesis and lowering high blood cholesterol reduces the incidence of CHD Grundy (1986). One of the risk factors for coronary heart disease is elevated Total Cholesterol (TC), Low Density Lipoprotein-Cholesterol (LDL-C) and Lower High Density Lipoprotein-Cholesterol (HDL-C) (Hu et al., 2001; Schaefer, 2002; Moreno and Mitjavalia, 2003; Jain et al., 2007). In particular, hyperglycemia, the primary clinical manifestation of diabetes, is thought to contribute to diabetic complications by altering vascular cellular metabolism, vascular matrix molecules and circulating lipoproteins (Inoguchi et al., 1994).

1. Introduction

Buckwheat is one of the most important life supporting nutritious crops, which has come as a secondary crop in many countries and has now attained its position in the agriculture of many countries where cereals form the stable food for the people. Though the crop is not a cereal, the seeds themselves can bring the name ‘pseudocereal’ due to their similar usage as cereal grains. There are many species of buckwheat in the world, of which mainly nine species have agricultural value (Krkoskova and Mrazova, 2005). Generally, the genus Fagopyrum in the family Polygonaceae includes two buckwheat species used for food around the world: common buckwheat (F. esculentum Moench), which is almost grown on all continents, and tartary buckwheat (F. tataricum (L.) Gaertn), which originated in eastern Tibet or northwestern Yunnan in China and is grown only in Asia, Europe, and North America (Bonafaccia et al., 2003; Tsuji and Ohnishi, 2001).

Buckwheat is grown throughout a large area as a crop that fits the farming system on marginal and fairly unproductive land. It is used as a subsistence crop in many of the more mountainous areas where it is often grown with barley at the higher altitudes. Tartary buckwheat, because of its frost tolerance, is generally grown at the higher altitudes whereas common buckwheat is grown at the lower altitudes. In many areas the trend is for replacement of common buckwheat, which has lower yielding ability and lacks frost tolerance, with finger millet or other crops.

1.introduction

The total sum of foods or mixture of foods which an individual consumes each day is referred to as his diet (Okey, 1992). Vegetables that are used as food has nourishing substances called nutrients namely carbohydrates, proteins, fats, minerals and vitamins. The nutritive value of different vegetables varies sufficiently and the usage of variety of vegetables ensures all the necessary nutrients required in the diet and its lack in daily menu may result in various disease and deficiencies (Saxena, 1970).  They contain a great variety of all other phytochemicals, some of which claimed to have antioxidant, antimicrobial and also anti-carcinogenic properties (Grudha et al., 1996). But when soaking is done in water either plain or salted with sodium chloride, water soluble nutrients may be leached into the water (Srilakshmi, 1999). An attempt was made in the present study to find out the effect of soaking of some selected vegetables in water for one hour after cutting them into pieces and its nutrient loss.

1. Introduction

Medicinal plants are nature’s priceless gift to human. They have been used all over the world for the treatment and prevention of various ailments particularly in developing countries where infectious diseases are endemic and modern health facilities and services are inadequate. Medicinal principles are present in different parts of the plants such as root, stem, bark, heartwood, leaf, flower, fruit or plant exudates (Thenmozhi et al., 2010). Phytochemicals from medicinal plants serve as lead compounds in drug discovery and design (Sofowora, 2006).

Free radicals are chemical species which contain one or more unpaired electrons, due to which they are highly metastable and cause damage to other molecules by extracting electrons from them in order to attain stability (Chakraborthy and Ghorpade, 2010). Hyper-physiological burden of free radicals causes imbalance in homeostatic phenomena between oxidants and antioxidants in the body. This imbalance leads to oxidative stress that is being suggested as the root cause of aging and various diseases like diabetes, cancer, and liver damage (in severe conditions like cirrhosis and hepatitis) (Wagh et al., 2010).

1. INTRODUCTION

The medicinal plants have been used by humans from the pre-historical times. Traditional medicine based on herbal remedies has always played a key role in the health systems of many countries. In India, the native people are exploiting a variety of herbals for effective curing of various ailments. Medicinal plants are widely used by all sections of the population and country is richly endowed with a wide variety of plants of medicinal value, which represents the great national resource (Alok, 1991).

It is estimated that at least 70 percent of population relay on herbal medicines for primary health care in our country (Holley and Williams, 1996). In India, different classical medicinal systems such as Ayurveda, Siddha and Unani are being practiced in the country and in addition to innumerable local folk medicinal traditions exist. More than 8000 species of wild plants are known to be used in India for the treatment of various health problems (Ved et al., 2000). This rich medicinal wealth is mainly distributed in two biodiversity hotspots that are Eastern Himalayas and Western Ghats. Numerous studies have pointed out that many drugs that are used in commerce have come from folk-use and use of plants by indigenous cultures (Anon, 1994). Medicinal plants form a heterogeneous group in growth, habit, distribution, reproduction, phenology and their ecological requirements.

1. Introduction

Several herbs have been used traditionally to prevent and treat human and animal diseases. Recently, scientific evaluation of plants and preparations of plant origin medications have received more attention. Cassia occidentalis had been reported to be used as antidote of poison, blood purifier, expectorant, anti inflammatory agent and a remedy for the treatment of liver diseases (Ghani, 1920, Kabiruddin, 1951). C occidentalis was tested for antifeedant and insecticidal properties. It was studied successfully for its anti-parasitic (Tona et al., 1999), hepatoprotective activity (Jafri et al., 1999). Stimulation of the immune system is highly desirable for the treatment of immunodeficiency and infectious diseases. The  anti-inflammatory and hepato protective effects of C occidentalis may relate to an influence of plant compounds on immunocompetent cells. The present study was undertaken to find out the effect of methanolic extract of C occidentalis leaves on the humoral immune response in rabbits.

1. Introduction

Pyrus malus Linn. commonly called as ‘apple’ in English and ‘seb’ in Hindi locally, is a well known tree belonging to family Rosaceae. It is indigenous to Europe and West Asia and grow wild in N.W. Himalayas and also cultivated. The leaves and young aerial parts are useful medicinally1. Leaves contain phloretin which is a natural antibiotic. Crushed leaves are used as temporary treatment for wounds. In Homoeopathy, its use is mentioned for labyrinthine vertigo by Dr. Cooper, in Boericke3.  The plant is a tree growing up to 20 to 40 feet, with spreading branches. The leaves are ovate or oblong ovate, serrate, 2-3’’ long; Petioles ½ to 1’’ in length. The flowers are large, fragrant, pale rose in colour and borne in sub umbellate corymbs. Fruit is a pome and edible.

Chemically the plant is  reported to contain patulin, campesterol, stigmasterol, b- sitosterol, nicotinic acid, phloretin 2- O-glucoside, phlorizin, Gibberellin A 62, melibiose, ostreasterol, 1,28-octacosanediol, pomonic acid and 1,24-tetracosanediol.

1. Introduction

Inflammation have been linked with pathogenesis of many diseases like Cancer, Atheriosclerosis, Neurodegenerative diseases, Diabetes Mellitus, Obesity, Arthritis, Cardiovascular diseases, Parkinson’s disease and other deadly diseases (Lee and Weinblatt, 2001). Inflammation can result to genetic defects and immunoregulation and mechanism defects which lead to tissue damage (Jones, 2006). Anti-inflammatory drug was serendipity discovered without thorough investigation and even not effective in term of controlling inflammation and now record several side effect just like other synthetic drugs, thus, safe biological sources are now been considered. Biological sources for active compounds that have medical importance are increase in recent time (Kaboli, 2001). Also, due to the residual side effects of synthetic compounds that form bulk of the materials used for the production of pharmaceutical products. Aspirin can cause stomach bleeding, acetaminophen can cause liver damage Cox-2 inhbitor Vioxx and Celebrex can cause heart problem and non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAID’s) was reported to contribute to numerous death (Clegg et al., 2006; Wolf et al., 1999; Sing, 1998).

1. Introduction

Plant-derived substances have recently become of great interest owing to their versatile applications. Medicinal plants are the richest bio-resource of drugs of traditional systems of medicine, modern medicines, nutraceuticals, food supplements, folk medicines, pharmaceutical intermediates and  chemical entities for synthetic drugs Medicinal value lies in certain chemical substances that have its physiological action on the human body. Many indigenous medicinal plants are used as spices and food plants. The general techniques of medicinal plant extraction include maceration, infusion, percolation, digestion, decoction, hot continuous extraction (Soxhlet), aqueous-alcoholic extraction by fermentation,  counter-current extraction, microwave-assisted extraction, ultrasound extraction (sonication), supercritical fluid extraction, and phytonic extraction (with hydrofluorocarbon solvents). For aromatic plants, hydrodistillation techniques (water distillation, steam distillation, water and steam distillation), hydrolytic  maceration followed by distillation, expression and enfleurage (cold fat extraction) may be employed.

1. Introduction

Phytochemicals are biologically active compounds found in plants, which act as a resistance system for host plants and protect them from biotic and abiotic stresses. Phytochemicals act as antioxidants, which react with the free radicals present in the cell. Free radicals are formed in the cell as a result of aerobic metabolism and these radicals are biologically active that damages the macromolecules like DNA, proteins and lipids resulting in oxidizing chain reactions (Moussa et al., 2011). Oxidative stress damage leads to various disorders like autoimmune disorders, cancer, rheumatoid arthritis, cataract, aging, cardiovascular diseases and other neurodegenerative disorders (Uttara et al., 2009). The major actions of antioxidant in the cells are to protect them against the damage caused by reactive oxygen species (ROS).

Medicinal plants are good sources of antioxidants such as vitamin E, ascorbic acid and carotenoids. There are huge numbers of medicinal plants that are veiled in the environment. In ancient times, different plant species have been used for the treatment of human ailments from fever to cancer (Devendrakumar et al., 2009).

Toxicology is defined as the study of chemical or physical agents which interact with biologic systems to produce a response in the organisms. Toxicity is the relative ability of a substance to cause injury to biologic tissue. Given the broad range of toxicities any substance might eventually invoke in an organism, it is easy to understand the wisdom of Paracelsus (1493-1541) when he said, “All substances are poisons; there is none which is not a poison. The right dose differentiates a poison and a remedy”.

Toxicology is the study of the harmful effects of chemical compounds on biologic systems, including their properties, actions, and effects. The toxic agent is referred to as a toxicant or poison. The term toxin refers to poisons produced by a biologic source (eg, venoms, plant toxins); the redundant term biotoxin is occasionally used. Toxicosis, poisoning, and intoxication are synonymous terms for the disease produced by a toxicant. Toxicity (sometimes incorrectly used instead of poisoning) refers to the amount of a toxicant necessary to produce a detrimental effect. Hazard describes the likelihood of poisoning under conditions of use.

Definitions
 
    •    Toxicology: Knowledge (or science) of poisons, including their chemical properties, identification, biological effects, and the treatment of conditions they cause.

    •    Poison: Any solid, liquid, or gas that, when introduced into or applied to the body, can interfere with the life processes of cells of the organism - by its own inherent chemical properties - without acting mechanically and regardless of temperature.

    •    Poison = Toxicant: The term poison is now used less often. Reason: Historical application of the term (malicious) vs. a compound used as a feed additive, agricultural, or other chemical - manufactured to fulfill a perceived human need.

Arsenic
General Information

    1.    Exists in elemental form (-3), trivalent As+3 and pentavalent As+5 oxidation states
    2.    Arsenic is an essential element for rats, chicks, mini-pigs and goats
    3.    The second most important pollutant for livestock. 

Source

Inorganic form is used in paints.
Pasture near smelters may be contaminated. 
Industrial effluents released into nearby water body.
Insecticides (arsenic trioxide, lead arsenate).
 

Nitrate – Nitrite Poisoning
Sources

Accidental ingestion/grazing of
Plants which are Nitrate accumulators

Introduction

Plants are the main source of nutrition to farm animals for their maintenance and production.  But, under certain conditions, plants intoxicate farm animal life due to the presence of some deleterious substances called phytotoxins. Such plants include a variety of fodder plants (Jowar, wheat straw, Lucerne), grasses (Millet grass), ornamental or fencing plants (Crotons, Nerium sps) and weeds.

(Tribulis) in the farm premises.
Generally, farm animals avoid such plants and weeds due to their unpleasant taste and offensive odor but during fodder scarcity caused by drought, floods or overgrazing, animals consume these plants. In addition, animals introduced into new areas, stall fed animals also sometimes lose their sense of discrimination and ingest such plants containing phytotoxins.

Introduction 

In the thirst of modernization and industrialization man has contributed pollution to the life and ecology of plants, animals and microbes. Increased demand for food and fiber has lead to the chemicalization of agriculture we have reached to such a stage that modern agriculture is dependent on high yielding varieties, which can only be grown under the influence of fertilizers and pesticides. Pesticides are the man made chemicals which are being used to produce enough cheap food. In India, 90,000 MT of technical grade pesticides are used annually to control pests and plant diseases. The pesticides are classified as insecticides, fungicides, weedicides, herbicides, nematodicides and rodenticides; of which insecticides constitutes 77% of the total pesticides used in different agricultural and animal husbandry practices and in public health operations.

Introduction

The word mycotoxin is derived from myco, meaning mold and toxin, a poison. A great number of mold metabolites have been identified as mycotoxins. Thus mycotoxins are secondary fungal metabolites (i.e., metabolites not essential to the normal growth and reproduction of the fungus) which cause pathologic, physiologic, and/or biochemical lesions in other species (may include animals, plants, other microbes, etc.).

Mycotoxicosis - Poisoning of a biological system by a mycotoxin.

Mycotoxins  are  defined as toxic metabolites released by moulds under certain conditions conducive for their growth. Acute or chronic toxicoses can result from exposure to feed or bedding contaminated with toxins that may be produced during growth of various saprophytic or phytopathogenic fungi or molds on cereals, hay, straw, pastures, or any other fodder. A few principles characterize mycotoxic diseases: