eChapters

Genus : Passiflora 
Species : edulis Sims.
Family : Passifloraceae
Chromosome No. : 2n = 18

The passion fruit (Passiflora edulis) is another fascinating tropical fruit besides having both dessert and processing qualities, the crop also has a big multi coloured very attractive flower and fruit with district taste  and flavour. Passion fruit is very popular in number of tropical and subtropical countries. Despite having variability at the species level the commercial development has not progressed as desired which is evident from the fact that the available commercial types are highly susceptible to diseases, lack of adaptation to soil and climate extremes, high establishment costs growing management problems  harvesting and market costs have forced the grower to focus on other remunerative crops. Passion fruit is said to be good source of minerals especially calcium, phosphorus and iron, vitamin A, niacin and riboflavin.

Genus : Eriobotrya 
Species : japonica Thunb./Lindl.
Family : Rosaceae 
Chromosome No. : 2n = 34

In Orient this beautiful and excellent fruit has failed to acquire the commercial significance which the crop deserves, further no concerted efforts have been made to improve it through selection and cultivation as has been done for many other Asiatic fruits. In contrast to major tropical and subtropical fruits which are said to be too sweet, loquat is one fruit that has subacid, sprightly flavoured fruits that match in taste and flavour to those of temperate fruits. The loquat has been in cultivation since antiquity in Japan and under present fruit culture scenario is one of the important fruits of that country

Genus : Durio 
Species : zibethinus Murray.
Family : Bombacaceae
Chromosome No. : 2n= 56

The exact place to which durian is indigenous is not established with certainity. The specie is said to be native to Borneo and other adjoining islands of Malay Archipelago. The species is seen growing in Sri Lanka and some other tropical countries. Outside the Malayan region durian cultivation is greatly restricted and is usually confined to the botanic gardens from study point of view. The crop has failed to move away from its native place primarily due to the fact that seeds are highly perishable which has restricted durian movement within tropical places of the world. Further due to the disagreeable flavour this fruit has not met with the favour from the Europeans. The banks of the Sarawak River are covered with many fruit trees that basically fulfill the food requirements of the local inhabitants called as Dyaks. Of the different kinds of fruit tree, durian is the most important found in abundance and is rated very highly.

Genus : Grewia
Species : subinequalis DC., asiatica L.
Family : Tiliaceae 
Chromosome No. : 2n = 36

Phalsa (Grewia asiatica) belongs  to the family Tilaceae and some members  are native of India too and is  mentioned in Vedic writings and various plant parts are employed to cure number of ailments. The family comprises  of 18 genera and some 400 species distributed mostly in the tropical and subtropical areas of the world. Of the prevailing 140 species,  40 are indigenous to India of which Grewia asiatica is of significance horticulturally. Phalsa is commercially  cultivated in Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh and on limited scale in Bihar, West Bengal, Gujarat, Maharashtra and Andhra Pradesh.

Genus : Garcinia
Species : mangostana L.
Family : Guttiferae
Chromosome No. : 2n = 56-76, 88-96, 120-130

In family Guttiferae to which mangosteen belongs, very few plants are fruits and yield drugs, gums and resins. It is a tropical fruit and occupies an important place in Garcinia family. The European voyagers on their return indicated wonderful stories of the East and mention of mangosteen received huge praise. Hacobus Bontius termed the fruit as ‘Queen of fruits’ the finest fruit in the world. Because of beautiful colouring of fruit alongwith pleasant delicate flavour makes mangosteen the most esteemed fruit of Asiatic tropics and no other tropical fruit equals to that of mangosteen. Despite being designated as the finest fruit of the tropics, the fruit is mainly confined to the limits of East Indies. The species is found wild in the forests of Sunda Islands and of the Malay peninsula. Writers have indicated that mangosteen is usual dooryard tree in the East Indies, more in Java and Sumatra. Some small orchards of mangosteen have come up in Sri Lanka, but they are most abundant only in Malay Archipelago.

Genus : Averrhoa 
Species : carambola L.
Family : Oxalidaceae
Chromosome No. : 2n= 22, 24

According to a Dutch traveller Linschoten (1598) has described carambola as a ‘fruit with eight distinct corners as big as a small apple, sour in taste, resembles an unripe plum. The Chinese and Hindus eat this fruit as vegetable when green and as a fruit (dessert) when ripe. Carambola is esteemed in the Orient and is wide spread in the tropics. The bilimbi is a close relative to Carambola and in every livelihood is native of Malayan region and is considered as the only cultivated species. The fruit is very acidic in taste, and in appearance resemble cucumber.

Genus : Aegle 
Species : marmelos (L) Correa
Family : Rutaceae
Chromosome No. : 2n = 18(36)

Bael (Aegle marmelos Correa) besides being indigenous to N. India it is also one of the most useful medicinal plant of India, as it has number of curative properties. In Ayurveda the Indian medicine system use of unripe fruit is advised for acute dysentery and diarrhoea whereas ripe fruit acts as an effective laxative. Amongst the fruits native of India, bael is said to be the most nutritious fruit, is rich in protein minerals, carbohydrates, vitamin C as well as in riboflavin content. Despite these quality statistics the fruit failed to become popular (as dessert) primarily it being very seedy with thick hard shell and mucilaginous flesh but the processing qualities needs to be exploited judiciously.

Genus : Carissa
Species : grandiflora A.D.C. carandas L.
Family : Apocynaceae
Chromosome No. : 2n=22

The carissa (Carissa grandiflora) is regarded not only for its ornamental value but also for its edible fruits. The plant is not very demanding in its climatic requirements. It grows successfully in the warm moist tropical regions and also in the dry subtropics where the temperature never falls below 26-28oC. In United States, especially in California, Carissa is injured by frost, whereas in Florida frost has no influence on the crop. This crop species is valued highly as a hedge plant, as it resists severe pruning and resultant growth is usually low and compact, which are desired traits for hedge plant. The thorny, stout branches make an impenetrable barrier for animals.

Genus : Cyphomendra 
Species : betacea  (Cav.)  Sendtner
Family : Solanaceae
Chromosome No. : 2n = 24

The tree tomato is a bushy fruit plant which in early time was planted in the gardens high upon the mountain slopes. Presently in India, Sri Lanka and number of other countries it is grown in the hilly region. Indians of Peru at very early stages gave the world a number of food plants of which potato is of great value, and tree tomato in the only woody species of family Solanaceae. The tree is fast growing and starts to bear in about two to three years times. The egg shaped and usually smooth-skinned fruits are produced in large number in hanging clusters. The sub acidic and succulent fruits are agreeable and eaten as raw. In central America it is called tomate and cultivated at an elevation of 4000 to 8000 feet. The crop loves rich loamy soil and grows best under irrigated conditions.

Genus : Physalis 
Species : peruviana L.
Family : Solanaceae
Chromosome No. : 2n = 28, 48

Physalis (Greek for Bladder, as the thin calyx enlarges and encloses the fruit). Fruit is called as husk tomato or ground cherry. Is  a plant of warm and temperate  regions and is mostly cultivated for its edible fruit  which is sub acidic in taste and  the flavour resembles that of tomato hence the name tree tomato or husk tomato. The genus comprises  nearly 75 species mostly of American origin, however few species are also found in Asia and Europe. The species peruviana and pubescens are cultivated for their edible fruit whereas P. alkekengi Linn and  P Franchetii  Hort., are highly valued for their shiny large red calices. Plant is a very old garden plant grown mainly for its brilliantly coloured calices, is perennial, grows zigzag with soft pubescence  on stems. Leaves ovate, base broad and angular, petiole spreading at top. Flowers whitish with yellow anthers.

Genus : Phyllanthus
Species : emblica L.
Family : Euphorbiaceae
Chromosome No. : 2n = 28

The aonla (Emblica officinalis syn. Phyllanthus emblica) is native of tropical south-eastern Asia, and to central and southern India in particular. Aonla although considered as a minor fruit, but is of commercial significance primarily due to early high returns without much care. The small lateral branches resembles pinnate leaves of walnut or sumac and when fall off leaves behind a big scar. Flowers are axillary, apetalous mono or dioecious in small clusters or singly. Plants show great adaptability, are hardy and high bearer. The genus Phyllanthus (Greek-for leaf flower) has some 500 species or even more and two have been identified as important from fruit point of view i.e. P. emblica and P. acidus.

Genus : Malpighia 
Species : punicifolia L., glabra Millsp.
Family : Malpighiaceae
Chromosome No. : 2n = 28

The barbados cherry, a member of the Malpighiaceae, is an interesting example of a fruit that rose like Cinderella, from relative obscurity about 40 years ago. It was at that time the subject of much taxonomic confusion, having been described and discussed previously under the binomical Malpighia glabra L. which properly belongs to a wild relative inhibiting the west Indies, tropical America and the lowlands of Mexico to southern Texas, and having smaller pointed leaves, smaller flowers in peduncled umbels, styles nearly equal, and smaller fruits. M. punicifolia

Genus : Asimina 
Species : triloba (L.) Dunal
Family : Annonaceae
Chromosome No. : 2n = 18

Uses

The delicious pawpaw fruits are used as dessert. The red or brown streak wood is light in weight hence not used for furniture or allied work. On account of its handsome foliage, large leaves and attractive form, it provides additional attraction when planted in gardens.

Genus : Vitis 
Species : vinifera L.
Family : Vitaceae
Chromosome No. : 2n=38, 40

Grapes are considered to be the oldest plants on earth which dates back to 90-95 million years, a time when dinosaurs ruled this planet, hence grape is as old as mankind. Grape is one of the most ancient crops. The Aryans knew grape cultivation as well as to prepare beverages from it. Grape cultivation in India dates back to 11th century BC. Later Muslim invaders from Iran and Afghanistan in the 12th century also introduced grapes to India, further in the 16th century Emperor Akbar the Great introduced and encouraged grape cultivation in various parts of India.

Genus : Actinidia 
Species : deliciosa (Plonch)
Family : Actinidiaceae
Chromosome No. : 2n = 58, 170, 174

The remarkable fruit of the previous century Kiwifruit is known by various names like China’s miracle fruit, the wonder fruit of New Zealand, Kiwi berry, Chinese gooseberry, Yangtao, Grosella and Mihoutao. In a short period of about two decades the crop has attracted huge inclination towards its cultivation and has become an established fruit crop of different world markets, which is unparallel in history of commercial fruit culture. In China the fruit has been growing over centuries in its wild form. The name Mihoutao was used for this crop by the Tang dynasty which indicated peach of the Macaque monkey indicating both the presence of fruit in wild stands and the love of the local monkey for this fruit.

Genus : Fragaria
Species : ananassa Duch.
Family : Rosaceae 
Chromosome No. : 2n=14, 25, 42, 56

Strawberry is relatively small genus comprising of usually low perennial creeping herbs, wild forms found wide spread in temperate and subtropical parts of the world. Cultivated strawberry is highly polymorphic and wide range of diversity present in the wild germplasm has resulted in the development of present day strawberry. Today it is grown throughout the world and is rated high in the list of liked foods. The breeders have contributed enormously towards the development of cultivars with wide adaptability and through the incorporation of desired traits helped to improve its quality dramatically over its wild forms. Today strawberry is known for its distinct delicate flavour, attractive fruit shape and colour and has made a special niche in the soft fruits culture. The cultivated strawberry Fragaria x ananassa Duch has resulted from the crossing of two local America species F. chiloensis (L) Duch. and F.virgianana, Duch.

Genus   : Ribes 
Species : nigrum L. americana Mill.
                bracteosum Dougl. niveum 
                Lindl. divaricatum Dougl.
Family : Saxifragaceae / Grossulariaceae
Chromosome No. : 2n = 16

The genus Ribes belongs to the family Saxifragaceae mainly comprises of woody shrubs distinctly marked with spines and prickles and those which have attractive handsome foliage, flowers and fruits.  The genus name Ribes is likely to be derived from ribas, the Arabic name for Rheum Ribes. Some are of the view that it is the latinized form of riebs,  an old name of currants in Germany.

Genus   : Rubus
Species : idaelus L. (European Red
                Raspberry) strigorus Michx. 
                (Red Raspberry occidentalis L. 
                (Black Raspberry)
Family : Rosaceae
Chromosome No. : 2n = 14 
                            (variable 28, 42, 56, 84)

The blackberries, raspberries, dewberries, boysenberry are collectively referred to as bramble fruits.  Mostly found in the north hemisphere. They belong to the family Rosaceae and genus Rubus. The family has nearly 250 species besides also has large number of apomictic segregates. Usually shrub, the woody species has biennial canes i.e. in the first year remains vegetative and in the second year it fruits and dies. Leaves variable in form from simple leaf to pinnately or palmately compound.  Flowers usually occur in clusters and are variable in colour, white pink to red.  Fruit is an aggregate of number of small drupes.

Genus : Prunus / Amygdalus
Species :  dulcis L. communis, Fritsch.
Family : Rosaceae
Chromosome No. : 2n = 28

Almond tree amongst the deciduous temperate fruits is the first crop to bloom in spring as it responds readily to warm temperature and also for its relatively low chilling requirements. The almond is thought to be one of the oldest nut crop used by man since very long.  However, its specific climatic requirements have greatly restricted its commercial production to limited regions of the world.  The almond blossoms are large attractive pink coloured very sensitive to spring frost, but at the same time the nut require high heat quantum at maturity, cool rainy weather during flowering restricts cross pollination and induces fungal infections. In the mild winter regions almond trees are limited by the fact that distinct chilling requirement for growth and flowering are not met with.

Genus : Juglans 
Species : regia L.
Family : Juglandaceae
Chromosome No. : 2n=2x=32

Walnut (Juglans regia L.) among the nut crops is regarded to be a rich source of proteins, fats and minerals and is said to be a concentrated source of energy. It is on this account that wild walnuts have been utilized as food for human and animals since pre-historic times. It contains good amount of different vitamins of B group and is richest in vitamin B6 compared to almond, pecan, filbert, chestnut and Brazil nut. After the last ice age, records indicate that walnut spread from Asia Minor to other parts of the world, while some opinion it to be even older than man as revealed by fossil studies.

Genus : Carya
Species : illinoensis (Wangenh) K. Koch.
Family : Juglandaceae
Chromosome No. : 2n = 32

Unlike other temperate nut fruits which have been in cultivation for long history of pecan cultivation is just about one hundred years, and in this short period pecan nut has gained huge popularity on account of its sweet nutty flavour and superb tree characteristics that is symmetrical form, luxuriant dark green shinny foliage with added ornamental value. Pecan nut is a remarkable highly valuable gift of North America to the horticulture of the world, and presently occupies fifth position among the leading nut fruit crops. In United States of America, pecan is recognized as ‘Queen of Nuts’

Genus : Castanea 
Species : avellana
Family : Fagaceae
Chromosome No. : 2n = 24

Before the history was started to be written chestnut nuts in Japan and China were harvested, collected and eaten and aptly has been an important food for man around the world especially in Asia, Asia Minor, Europe and North America for hundreds of years. As early as 50 B.C., chestnut was brought to southern Europe by Greeks from Asia Minor and red Indians in North America prior to its discovery. Used nuts of chestnut was a staple food especially during famine times.

Genus Castanea has 13 species and belongs to the family Fagaceae which also has important forest plants like Oak (Quercus), and beech (Fagus). Species of this genus are grown for ornamental and also for their edible nuts. Three species of chestnut are economically important as they produce edible nuts, are highly variable and selection has been practiced for hundreds of years to select high yielding, large fruited type. The species other than C. dentata (American chestnut) are called ‘Chinkapins’.

Genus : Corylus 
Species : avellana L.
Family : Betulaceae
Chromosome No. : 2n=2x=28

European filbert Corylus avellana L, is known by several names common being Cob, cobnut, hazel, Spanish or Lambert nut, which has been due to its origin, fruit shape, husk and the general appearance. ‘Filbert’ has also come from name ‘full beard’ as the nut of commerce is fully enclosed by the long husk. It is this husk or involucres which very often has been used to distinguish between various species and cultivars. Corylus the genus has been derived from korys which indicate bonnet, hood or helmet and there are several other views of its name being derived after the name of some renowned places. The word ‘hazelnut’ is from anglosaxon haesel meaning hood. Further the term hazelnut is used in European and Filbert in Asian countries for and its other species. However in America, the term is used to refer to three native species C. archericana, C. californica and C. cornuta. Filbert is an important member of birch family, Betulaceae which has a long history of cultivation (8000 to 5500 B.C.). 

Genus : Pistachia 
Species : vera L.
Family : Anacardiaceae
Chromosome No. : 2n = 30

Among the nut crops Pistachio nut (Pistacia vera L.) occupies a significant place for its delectable and nutty flavoured kernels which in large quantity is imported to India mainly from Iran and Afghanistan. On account of its demand for very exacting climatic requirements the crop has failed to establish successfully in number of new regions where efforts were made to introduce this crop, despite the fact that it resists drought and adverse soil conditions much better than more important fruits of the family Anacardiaceae. Pistachio trees are long lived but grow very slowly in early years of its plantation compared to many of the deciduous fruit trees. Alternate bearing is also a wide spread phenomena in this crop. Pista is a fruit of temperate region and can withstand wide fluctuation in temperature. The exact place of its origin though not definite, is often regarded to be indigenous to central Asia, where large stands of wild pistachio trees are found growing in abundance.

Genus   : Macadamia
Species : integrifolia Maiden and Betch
Family : Protaceae 
Chromosome No. : 2n =28

Macadamia nut is known as ‘Australian Nut’ or ‘Queensland Nut’ because of its origin in the rainforests of New South Wales and Queensland. The crop is sensitive to frost hence the site which suits orange and lemon tree cultivation is also good for macadamia. Macadamia through cultivated commercially in Australia it is in Hawaii that maximum improvement and advancement in terms of selection of superior cultivars has taken place and in short time of about 100 years macadamia culture has become a very fruitful entrepreneur. Presently there is huge gap between the macadamia nut demand and supply therefore efforts are being made to introduce macadamia into other tropical and subtropical parts of the world.

Genus : Malus  
Species : domestica (Borkh.)
Family : Rosaceae 
Chromosome No. : 2n = 34, 51, 68

Like many other fruit crops, apple too is a very old crop in cultivation. Theophratus as early as third century B.C. has indicated that the Greeks and Romans knew apple culture and among the temperate fruit crops, apple is the most ubiquitous of all fruits and is extensively grown all over the world. Huge genetic variability present has permitted the better adapted types to be selected for plantation under different agro climatic conditions.  Through continuous selection both from wild population and also from hybrid seedlings, varied types or varieties have been selected, some are suitable for cultivation in warm temperate regions and others for extreme cold conditions.  This has resulted/added to the gene pool of desired types of apples enormously. At present cultivars are available destined for specific purposes like dessert, cooking, juice, cider and for large number of other uses.

Genus : Pyrus 
Species : communis L.
Family : Rosaceae 
Chromosome No. : 2n= 34

Pear like apple is also a prehistoric crop and unlike apple its cultivation in Europe started much before that of apple at an early time. According to Homer (1000 B.C.) the ancient Greek said that pears were one of the “gifts of god’s”. Romans also enormously added to the knowledge of pear cultivation. Pliny in Rome had described 35 cultivars (23-79 AD). The variation in fruit characters described earlier match to the range of fruit characters which are found in presently grown commercial cultivars. In Europe for its buttery soft texture and distinct aroma many consider European pear as the most detectable of all temperate fruits, while the Asian pears for their firm crisp texture and juiciness are preferred more in China and Japan – their native place. Pears are readily consumed as fresh, dried, cooked or as preserves or to make perry and pear wine.

Genus : Cydonia / Pyrus
Species : oblonga Mill. vulgaris Pers. 
                cydonia L.
Family : Rosaceae 
Chromosome No. : 2n= 34

The fruit of pome class referred as Cydonia oblonga (also Pyrus cydonia) is an ancient fruit and yet its significance is not fully recognized and crop has received very less attention. There is hardly any mention of this old fruit in respect of its merit, its cultivation or in the form of some standard literature. One reason could be that amongst pome fruits where quince is placed, better fruit form, raw eating quality persisted, which markedly restricted quince improvement. Quince fruit lacks dessert class except when cooked but is commercially used for flavouring, in preparation of jellies marmalade and preserves. However in near East and Persia, quince cultivation is highly improved through the selection of better varieties which are eaten raw.

Genus : Prunus 
Species : persica Batsch
Family : Rosaceae
Chromosome No. : 2n = 16

The peach, Prunus persica (L) Batch is unique among the temperate fruits as it is adaptated to varied climatic conditions and it is for this reason that peach and its close relative the nectarine, in a short period has spread rapidly to different parts of the world. Peach is a tree of temperate zone, but has attained higher quality (fruit colour, taste etc.) in areas where the summer temperatures are relatively warm to hot. With the discovery of low chill types ‘Honey’ and ‘Peen to’ forms from southern China, peach cultivation has been spread to warm temperate regions of the world. Normally peach requires from 500-1000 hours of cold/chill hours below 7.2oC for growth and flowering in the spring. Peach history as a garden crop in China is well documented, and forms varying in flesh colour (white, yellow or red), free stone or cling stone, flower colour, large and showy flower type seen presently were also present at very early time i.e. the beginning of the present century.

Genus : Prunus 
Species : armeniaca L.
Family : Rosaceae
Chromosome No. : 2n = 16

Of all the temperature fruits belonging to tribe pruneae, apricots after cherries are more exacting in their climatic requirements. For this climate specific, apricots are often described as a fruit that fails where other fruits grow successfully. Apricots lavish continental climate, which is characterized by low rainfall (50 cm per year), warm summers and without much variation in winter temperatures and this winter temperature in temperate regions remain close to -33o C. Apricot trees are said to be drought resistant and can sustains low atmospheric humidity but is very sensitive to low soil moisture content.

Genus : Prunus 
Species : domestica institia L. 
                saliciana Lindl.
Family : Rosaceae
Chromosome No. : 2n - 48

Of all the stone fruits, plums are the most varied. They belong to the genus Prunus of the subfamily Prunoideae of the family Rosaceae. All plums have a basic chromosome number of x=8. Plums and related species have been placed in the subgenus Prunophora section Euprunus and Prunocerasus. Six species have been placed in the section Euprunus. Their chromosome number range from diploid to hexploid and are native to the land extending from Europe to China. Thirteen species native to the North American continent are all diploid in nature and have been placed in the sections Prunocerasus. Separation of the plums into the two sections does not appear to have any genetical basis since the species appear to be closely related. Prunus domestica, the European plum, is believed to be the most recent crop species to have arisen within the section Prunophora. Prunus insititia.

Genus   : Prunus
Species : avium cerasus, mahaleb L.
Family : Rosaceae
Chromosome No. : 2n = 16, 24, 32

Records indicate that cherries were in cultivation ever since the beginning of civilization. Cherries exhibit vast genetic variability as is evident from the different species which vary in their ploidy level. Sweet cherries (Prunus avium L) are diploid while sour cherries (P. cerasus, L.) are tetraploid, and commercially more important than the other species. Duke cherry has resulted from hybridization between sour and sweet cherry with intermediate tree and fruit characters. Successful cherry cultivation revolves around climatic factors, prime being the extent and spread of rainfall, variation in day and night temperature, occurrence of frosts, high heat day largely determine the type of cherry that will grow successfully in a particular areas. Hence cherry improvement around the world has so far been localized to few selected areas where different cherries have been successfully grown.

Genus : Olea 
Species : europaea L.
Family : Oleaceae
Chromosome No. : 2n=2x=46

Amongst the fruit crops, Olive is undoubtedly one of the world’s oldest cultivated crop and its cultivations dates back to 3000 B.C. and till date is recognized as a symbol of peace and prosperity. Olive is an evergreen subtropical plant, but for flowering and fruiting it does require chilling as most of the temperate fruits do. Although slow to grow, olive is a very long lived plant and with its typical dense foliage of olive green and silvery leaves also serves as an ornamental type. The centre of origin includes Palestine, Lebanon, north west Syria and Cyprus. The Greeks and Roman were well aware of the significance of olive oil during 900 to 600 B.C. and oil was considered as a luxury item in body anointment. From its native place olive established itself in the Mediterranean region especially Italy, Spain and from here to other parts of the world.

1. Introduction

Medicinal plants are rich source of novel drugs that forms the ingredients in traditional systems of medicine, modern medicines, nutraceuticals, food supplements, folk medicines, pharmaceutical intermediates, bioactive principles and lead compounds in synthetic drugs (Ncube, 2008).  In recent years, antibiotic resistance has become a global concern. This drives the need to screen medicinal plants for novel bioactive compounds as they are biodegradable, safe and have fewer side effects (Prusti et al., 2008). Higher plants, as a source for new potential drugs is still largely unexplored and screening of active agents helps to design the lead molecule later in drug development.

Aegle marmelos(L.) Corr., belongs to the family Rutaceae, and is popularly known as Vilvam tree (Tamil) (Gamble, 1935; Mathew, 1983). It is an indigenous tree found in Iran, India, Myanmar, Pakistan, Bangladesh and most of Southeast Asian countries (Singh, 2009).  A. marmelos has been used from time immemorial in traditional systems of medicine for relieving diarrhoea, dysentery, stomachic, digestive, astringent, peptic ulcer and respiratory infection (Nadkarni, 2000). The fruit, leaves, bark and root are edible and possess medicinal values. The unripe dried fruit used to be astringent, digestive and stomachic, the ripe fruit is aromatic, cooling and is used as laxative.

1. Introduction

Gloriosa superba L. (Liliaceae) is a striking tuberous climbing plant with brilliant wavy-edged yellow and red petaled flowers. Glory lilies are grown commercially for a chemical compound, colchicine. The annual foreign exchange through the export of glory lily seeds is estimated to be Rs.100 crores (Alice and Sundravadana, 2012). It is used as anthemirtic, alexiteric and useful in ulcers, piles, abdominal pains and itching. It has abortifacient, anti-pyretic, anti-inflammatory and anti-leprotic properties (Gupta et al., 2005). Leaf blight disease was first noticed in  G.. Superba in West Bengal, India in 2004. The leaf blight disease was observed during June to September. Early symptoms appeared as small, circular to oval, light brownish spots, 2-6 per leaf, scattered at the tip, margin and midrib of the leaves. Subsequently the spots enlarged and usually developed into concentric rings. At an advanced stage, the spots became dark brown to blackish in colour, gradually coalesced and became irregular in shape, then the affected leaf blighted completely. The causal organism was found to be a fungus namely Alternaria alternata (Fr.) Keissler. The pathogen is greatly influenced by weather with the highest disease incidence reported in wet seasons and in areas with relatively high rainfall (Meena et al., 2010). The growth of A. alternata was maximum in pH range of 6-6.5 and temperature range of 25-30°C (Hubballi et al., 2010).

1. Introduction

Plants are reliable sources for the treatment of diseases in different parts of the world (Eisenberb et al., 1993; Cowan, 1999; Hostettmann et al., 2000) and they have been unique sources of medicines and constituted the most common use of biodiversity (Hamilton, 2004; Hiremath and Taranath, 2010). Their use contributes significantly to primary healthcare delivery (Holetz et al., 2002) as they are regarded as invaluable sources of pharmaceutical products (Olalde, 2005).

Traditional medicine, with medicinal plants as their most important component, are sold in market places or prescribed by traditional healers in their homes (Von Maydell, 1996). As a result of this strong dependence on plants as medicines, many ethnopharmacological studies have been conducted to determine their safety, efficiency and discovery of new active principles from them. Only, 1,100 plants have so far been thoroughly examined for their medicinal practices in the world (Dobson, 1995).

Herbal medicine have been in use since time immemorial and are still the mainstay mainly in the developing countries because of their better cultural acceptability, better compatibility with the human body and lesser side effects (Kamraj, 2000).

1. Introduction 

Medicinal plants are a basis of huge economic value all over the world. The use of plants and plant products as remedies could be sketched as far back as the beginning of human civilization. The most primitive medicinal use of plants in Hindu culture is mentioned in “Rigveda”, which is believed to have been written between 4500 - 1600 B.C. and is theoretical to be the oldest arsenal of human knowledge (Dhale and Mogle, 2011). Ayurveda is the base of curative science of Hindu culture, in its eight dissection deals with specific properties of drugs and different aspects of science of life and the art of healing (Rastogi and Mehrotra, 2002). Nature has presented on us an affluent botanical wealth and a large number of varied types of plants nurture in different parts of the country. Herbal medicine is still the basis of about 75 - 80% of the whole population. The major part of traditional therapy occupies the use of plant extract and their active components (Akerele, 1993). Secondary metabolites are green medicines present in plants and plant parts that act as defense system against disease inducing organisms or more accurately to protect against disease due to the physiological and biochemical mechanism failure (Alarcon-Aguilar et al., 2002).

1. Introduction

Malaria remains one of the most serious tropical diseases and kills an estimated one to two million people each year worldwide (Snow et al., 2005). Spread of drug resistance has played an important role in the occurrence and severity of epidemic diseases in the world (Majori, 2004). As a consequence of resistance to drugs such as quinine, chloroquine, primaquine and mefloquine, the vehemence of malaria has increased in many endemic regions of the world (Schlitzer, 2007; Basco et al., 1994). One of the biggest challenges to malaria control is the emergence and spread of drug resistant P. falciparum strains. Although human malaria transmitted by female Anopheles mosquitoes has four Plasmodium species as its aetiological agents P. falciparum, P. vivax, P. ovaleand P. malariae, the most widespread and severe disease is caused by P. falciparum, which transiently infects the liver before invading red blood cells of the mammalian host. Clinical manifestations occur at the erythrocytic stage and can include fever, chills, prostration and anaemia, as well as delirium, metabolic acidosis, cerebral malaria and multi-organ system failure, which may be followed by coma and death (Fidock et al., 2004; Deprez-Poulain et al., 2005, De Sa et al., 2009).The success of the natural product-based antimalarials such as quinine and artemisinin has showed the importance of plants as potential source of antimalarial agents. Consequently, numerous efforts to identify antiplasmodial activities from plants traditionally used as remedies for fever and malaria (Chen et al., 1997; Havsteen, 2002;

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India throughout its long history has accumulated a prosperous practical acquaintance of the use of medicinal plants for the treatment of various diseases. Chemical studies on Indian medicinal plants make available a priceless material foundation for the discovery and development of new drugs of natural origin. Contrary to the synthetic drugs, antimicrobials of plant origin are not associated with many side effects and have an enormous therapeutic potential to cure many infectious diseases (Bibitha et al., 2002; Maghrani et al., 2005; Doughari, 2006). Plants are used as a medicine in different countries and are a source of many potent and powerful drugs (Kambizi and Afolayan, 2008). Extraction and characterization of several active compounds from these green factories have given birth to some high activity profile drugs (Mandel et al., 2007). Phyllanthus is a medicinally important genus belongs to the family Euphorbiaceae. A number of plants of this family are observed to be beneficial for the treatment of liver ailments. Phyllanthus reticulatus Poir. is a large climbing shrub growing from 8-10 feet in height. It is used in the traditional medicinal system of our country for treatment of a variety of ailments including small pox, syphilis, asthma, diarrhoea, and bleeding from gums (Kirtikar and Basu, 2003;

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Nothing in the universe is non medicinal everything has its value in its own way. Infectious diseases are an important health hazard all over the world, both in developing and developed countries. Several synthetic antibiotics are employed in the treatment of infectious and communicable diseases. A number of researchers nowadays are working seriously to find out substitutes for antibiotics as they cause side effects on the functioning of different parts of the body organs and systems. Antibiotics are also known to disturb the natural intestinal micro flora, thus depriving the benefits of these microbes to human body. Medicinal plants exhibit antimicrobial activity since they contain innumerable biologically active chemical constituents. The medicinal plant wealth, the strong and time tested traditional medicare systems like ayurveda and the human resource base are the strengths of India. Over the last forty years intensive efforts have been made to discover clinically useful antibacterial/ antifungal drugs (Sashikumar et al., 2003). Over 50% of all modern clinical drugs are of natural product origin (Ates, 2003). Higher plants as sources of medicinal compounds have continued to play a dominant role in the maintenance of human health since ancient times (Farombi, 2003).

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Reactive oxygen species (ROS) is a collective term used for oxygen containing free radicals, depending on their reactivity and oxidizing ability. They participate in a variety of chemical reactions with biomolecule (Kunwar et al.,2011).These free radicals include superoxide anions (O2-), hydroxyl (OH-), peroxyl (ROO), peroxynitrite (ONOO) and nitric oxide (NO) radicals; produced through oxidative process within the body. They can damage both the structure and function of a cell membrane in a chain reaction leading to degenerative disease conditions such as alzheimer, ageing process, cataracts, acute liver toxicity, cardiovascular disease, arteriosclerosis, nephritis, diabetes mellitus, rheumatism, inflammation process and DNA damage that can lead to carcinogenesis (Ghosh et al., 2011).

An antioxidant is a molecule capable of inhibiting or preventing the oxidation of molecules. Antioxidants are substances that may protect cells from the damaging effects of oxygen radicals, highly reactive chemicals that play a part in atherosclerosis, some forms of cancer and reperfusion injuries. Medicinal plants are an important source of antioxidants. The secondary metabolites like phenolics and flavonoids from plants have been reported to be potent free radical scavengers. They are found in all parts of plants such as leaves, fruits, seeds, roots and bark (Chanda and Dave, 2009).

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Seaweeds are the extraordinary sustainable resources in the marine ecosystem which have been used as a source of food, feed and medicine. The number of natural products isolated from marine organisms increases rapidly, and now exceeds with hundreds of new compounds being discovered every year (Chapman and Chapman. 1980, Cheennubhotla et al., 1986; Chennubhotla et al., 1987; Faulkner, 2002; Proksch and Muller, 2006). Several products of algal origin such as alginate, carrragenean and agar as phycocolliods have been used for decades in medicine and pharmacy (Fitton, 2006). Seaweeds are considered as source of bioactive compounds and produce a great variety of secondary metabolites characterized by a broad spectrum of biological activities.  Seaweeds contain various inorganic and organic substances which can benefit human health (Kuda et al., 2002). The in vitro studies on green, brown and red algae confirmed the following potential activities viz., cytostatic, antiviral, antihelminthic, antifungal and antibacterial (Lindequist and Schweder, 2001; Newman et al., 2003; Dhargalkar and Neelam, 2005; Huang et al., 2005; Gonzalez del Val et al., 2001; Espeche et al., 1984).

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Our Indian traditional medicine depends on herbals which always played an important role in the health problems of many countries. In India, the tribal people are using variety of herbals for effective curing of various ailments. These plants are often used by the local people of that area for treatment of various diseases. Ethnomedicinal studies have offered immense value and opportunities for the development of new drugs. Living close to nature, traditional societies have acquired unique knowledge about the use of wild flora and fauna, most of which are unknown to the people who live away from such natural ecosystem as forests and hills. The hills have been the sources of medicinal plants since the time man realized the preventive and curative properties of plants and started using them for human health care.

Tribal people throughout the world, including India, have developed their own cultures, customs, religious rites, taboos, legends and myths, folk tales, medicine, food, etc., They are the repository of accumulated experience and knowledge of the indigenous vegetation; this can be utilized in tribal development. These days greater emphasis is being laid on this traditional knowledge and on using it in the “bioprospecting” of natural products as a new source of food and medicine.

1. Introduction

Atalantia monophylla (L.) DC. is a small tree belonging to the family Rutaceae; resembles Citrus in general aspects and is considered a close wild relative of Citrus. The species is commonly called as wild lime, in Malayalam it is called as Kattunaragam and in Tamil Katuuelumichai. A. monophylla is used in Ayurveda, Folk and Siddha systems of medicine. It is used for the treatment of rheumatoid pain and glandular swelling (Sankaranarayan et al., 2010). The root is believed to be antispasmodic (Kiritikar and Basu, 1999), the leaves are often applied for itching and other skin complaints (Panda, 2004) and acridone alkaloids isolated from roots were reported to have anti-allergic activity (Chukaew et al., 2008). The chloroform extract of leaves has shown antiviral activity (Chansakaow et al., 1996). Besides its medicinal value A. monophylla leaves are used as flavoring agent, berries are used for making pickles, juice of berries are used for dyeing purpose and wood as timber. It is also useful as a rootstock for breeding new cultivars of Citrus Linn. (Guha Bakshi et al., 1999). This species has high medicinal value and the natural population is under threat due to habitat destruction, use of wood as firewood, collection of fruits for making pickles and harvesting of leaves, roots for medicinal purposes by the local communities. Hence there is a need for developing an appropriate conservation strategy for this species.

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The therapeutic efficacy of many indigenous plants for various diseases has been described by traditional herbal medicine practitioners (Bharat and Parabia, 2010). Natural products are the source of synthetic and traditional herbal medicine. They are still the primary health care system in some parts of the world (Mahmud et al., 2010). In India, local empirical knowledge about medicinal properties of plants is the basis for their uses as a home remedies. It is generally accepted by many Indians and elsewhere in the world that beneficial medicinal effects can be obtained by ingesting plant products. Plants bear the basis of many traditional medicines throughout the world for thousands of years and continue to provide new remedies to mankind (Patel, 2009). The World Health Organization (WHO) also encourages, recommends and promotes the use of traditional and herbal remedies in the National Health Care Program because these medicines are easily available at low cost, comparatively safe and people have faith in such remedies (Wani, 2007). Herbal medicines are promising choice over modern synthetic drugs. Due to the serious obsession with the modern medicinal system, people have started looking at the ancient healing systems like Ayurveda, Siddha and Unani (Shankar and Ved, 2003).

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Antioxidants are defined as molecules which can be safely interact with free radicals and terminate the chain reaction before vital molecules are damaged (Nidhi and Gaurav, 2012). Naturally occurring antioxidants to replace synthetic antioxidants which are being restricted due to their carcinogenicity (Abdel Hameed, 2009). The antioxidant phytochemicals such as polyphenols, flavanoids and related compounds found in medicinal plants have received increasing attention for their potential role in prevention of human diseases (Upadhyay et al., 2010).
 
The genus Ophiorrhiza belongs to the family Rubiaceae and consists of about 150 species and distributed in tropical and subtropical Asia. Species of Ophiorrhiza are economically important and many of these species contain a high value anticancerous compound, a cytotoxic alkaloid camptothecin and other valuable alkaloids. Ophiorrhiza pectinata Arn. is a herbaceous plant and is distributed over peninsular India and Srilanka. A preliminary study conducted in O. pectinata also contains this important alkaloid (0.0040mg/g dry wt). Leaves and stem contain traces of hydrocyanic acid. The main objective of the present study is to evaluate the antioxidant and radical scavenging property of the chloroform methanol and water extract of whole plant of O. pectinata. 

1. Introduction

The discovery and development of antibiotics have led to dramatic improvement in the ability to treat infectious diseases with emergence of drug – resistant organisms due to irrational and overuse of antibiotics, failure to complete a course of treatment, genetic versatility of microbes and horizontal transfer of resistant genes among bacterial species had led to antibiotic resistance (Amit and Shailendra, 2006; Aibinu, 2007).The need for alternative antimicrobial agents has renewed the interest on plants as a sources of antimicrobial agents due to their use historically and the fact that a good portion of the world’s population, particularly in developing countries, rely on plants for the treatment of infectious and non-infectious diseases.
 
Syzygium aromaticum

Clove (Syzygium aromaticum) is the aromatic dried flower buds of a tree in the family Myrtaceae. The traditional use indicates that Clove has several therapeutic properties, such as an aphrodisiac, stomach, carminative, nervous stimulant and tonic. Reports has been documented  on their aphrodisiac, antibacterial, antifungal, nematocidal, anti-toothache, anti-oxidant, analgesic, anesthetic and hypotensive properties. Although in Iranian traditional medication several formulation containing clove have been used as a nervous stimulant and cognitive enhancer. (Mohammad, et al., 2009).

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Phytochemicals are compounds present in fruits that are not required for normal functioning of the body, but have a beneficial effect on health or play an active role in amelioration of diseases. Phytonutrients have various health benefits like antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, cancer preventive, antidiabetic and antihypertensive. The pigments of the fruits have many therapeutic benefits including vasoprotective and anti-inflammatory properties, antiproliferative, chemo protective and anti-neoplastic properties, reversing age related deficits (Joseph et al.,1999) and useful in controlling oxidative stress during pregnancies complicated by intrauterine growth retardation (Pawlowicz et al.,2000). Cocculus hirsutus Linn. is a climber and widely distributed in tropical and subtropical climates. This plant is commonly called as kattu kodi in Tamil. It belongs to the family Menispermaceae. The fruit is a drupe which is size of small pea with red purple endocarp (Fig.1a and Fig.1b). The plant is used in treatment of gonorrhea, spermatonorrhea, Urinary troubles, diarrhea and hyperglycemia (Kirtikar and Basu, 2002). The leaves of the plant have been evaluated for anti hyperglycemic (Badole et al., 2006); antibacterial (Panda et al., 2007); diuretic and laxative (Ganapaty et al., 2002). Several isoquinoline alkaloids are present in leaves and roots; the important ones cohirsine, cohirsinine, cohirsitinine, hirsutine and jamtine (Viqaruddin et al., 1987; 1991; 1992; 1993). Since no detail scientific approach has been made to study phytochemicals of cocculus hirsutus fruit. So in the present investigation preliminary

1. Introduction

Mounting pressure of teeming population and shrinking land resources have necessitated the production of increasingly more food per unit area. Insect pests, diseases and weeds are important biotic constraints inflicting 20-25% loss in agriculture production. Synthetic pesticides have of course, played a very significant role in restricting many pest problems. However, their indiscriminate has been its toll by creating several problems like pesticide resistance in insects, contamination of food with toxic residues, resurgence of pests and deleterious effects on non target organisms. The number of effective pesticides available is dwindling day by day further having less choice among which to choose. These ill effects have arised interest in alternate methods of plant protection.

The extent to which various plant species are utilized for pest control depends, not only on their effectiveness against target pests, but also on socio-economic, environmental and policy considerations. Keep these in mind the present study on the efficacy of botanicals against Spodoptera litura was carried out.

1. Introduction
 
Keratinophilic fungi are the natural colonizers of keratinic substances like hair, nail, fur, feathers, hooves, claws, beaks, scales etc. Cattle sheds, garbage, animal burrows, sewage, birds nest, feather and hair dumping sites, poultry farms, public places like parks, schools, market place etc., are the common habitats of these fungi (Ali-Shtayeh and Rana, 2000). They utilize keratin as the sole source of carbon and nitrogen and produce an extracellular enzyme keratinase.

Keratinophilic fungi have been receiving considerable attention in recent days as these include dermatophytes which are potential pathogens causing various diseases in skin and scalp (Weitzman and Summerbell, 1995). Human exposure to these fungi is a matter of health risk. Several non-pathogenic fungi are now being reported as opportunistic pathogen and their occurrence in various environments, where they are naturally occurring is not directly investigated. Although several antifungal drugs are available in the market, its use is being limited due to a number of reasons such as low potency, poor solubility, development of resistant strains and drug toxicity. Hence there is an essential need to evaluate plant extracts scientifically for their medicinal properties to discover more safer and effective antifungal agents.