eChapters

Nose

The nose is the externally visible part of the respiratory system. It forms the part of the face of the animal extending from the transverse level of eyes to the rostral end of the head. Exteriorly it is formed by the bones, muscles, cartilages and the skin. Internally it encloses the nasal cavity which is lined by the mucous membrane. The dorsal part of the nose (roof of the nasal cavity) is termed as dorsum nasi. It is formed by the nasal and frontal bones of the skull. The lateral parts are formed by the incisive, maxillary, lacrimal and zygomatic bones. Covering these bones externally is a muscular layer formed by the facial muscles running over these bones and acting on the upper lip and nostrils. The muscular layer is externally covered by the skin. The skin on the nose bears fine hairs except at the tip of the nose that is formed by the nostrils. The rostral end of the nose is formed by nostrils which provide entrance to the nasal cavity. The nostrils are supported by cartilages which are the dorsal and ventral extensions of the cartilage of the nasal septum. The main aim of the nose is to support and protect the nasal cavity.

(Method of Bryant et al., 1959)

Strontium and barium are adsorbed on a cation-resin column, and  after a suitable gowth period, yttrium-90, the daughter of strontium-90, is selectively eluted. The yttrium-90 is then adsorbed on and eluted from a second cation-resin column and counted. The radiochemical yield is greater than 97% gravimetric measurement of the recovery of strontium and yttrium carriers is not required. The method, with modifications, is applicable to samples that contain 100 mg of iron or uranium.

A. Write True or False
    1.    Bulk density is the true density of the soil.
    2.    Igneous rocks are acidic in nature.
    3.    Adhesion is the attraction of like molecules.
    4.    pH is the negative logarithm of Hydrogen ion concentration.
    5.    Limestone is a sedimentary rocks.
    6.    Size of the gravel is more than 2mm.
    7.    Black and dark colour of soil is due to organic matter and iron.
    8.    Soil moisture tension at Permanent wilting point corresponds to 15 atm. 
    9.    Micropores are the large pores present in the soil.
    10.    Oxidation is the removal of oxygen from the minerals.
    11.    Straight fertilizer contains only one nutrient.

Soil is the top layer of the earth surface in which plants can grow, consisting of rock and mineral particles mixed with decayed organic matter and having the capability of retaining water. Soil is a mixture of organic matter, minerals, gases, liquids, and organisms that together support life. Earth’s body of soil, called the pedosphere, has four important functions

Abstract

The seaquake on 26^th December 2004 with its epicenter at Sumatra triggered a tsunami, which had a major impact on South East Asian countries. During that incident, the average height of the tsunami wave was 7-10 m and the penetration of seawater was up to 1-1.5 km. The surface water resources meant for irrigation and other drinking purposes got affected by the ingress of seawater in many areas. The direct environmental impacts of the tsunami have more impact along the entire east coast and caused more damages in coastal systems. The physical and chemical perturbations caused in the coastal zone by the tidal waves are discussed. In order to assess the environmental impact on coastal system, it is suggested that significant physical and biogeochemical factors could be framed to quantify the problems.

Keywords: Tsunami, Physical and Chemical Alterations, Coastal zone.

The discovery of mutagenic effects of X-rays on the fruit fly (Drosophila) by H. Muller in 1927 and by L. J. Stadler in barley and maize in 1928 paved the way for researchers to experiment with its effects on various organisms. In 1928, H. Stubbe showed the use of mutagenesis in producing mutants in crop plants like tomato, soybean and others. The first commercial mutant was produced in tobacco in 1934. Reports by B. Sigurbjornsson and A. Micke mentioned 77 cultivars that were developed through mutagenesis prior to 1995. In 1995, this number was 484. This number has since been significantly increased covering a large number of crops, namely, corn, wheat, pea, chrysanthemum, poinsettia, dahlia, citrus, apple, peach and the modified traits include plant maturity, winter hardiness, lodging resistance, protein and lysine content and numerous ornamental mutants. By the end of 20th century, the number of mutant varieties rose to 2252 covering a range of crops like cereals, oilseeds, pulses, vegetables, fruits, fibres, and ornamentals. Majority of these mutants were released as direct mutants and the rest as a result of cross breeding with the mutants. Most of the mutant varieties have come as a result of using physical mutagens (X-rays, gamma rays, thermal and fast neutrons) with gamma rays alone accounting for more than 60% of the mutant varieties. By 2017, nearly 3250 mutant varieties belonging to 175 plant species have been developed and released where China, Japan, India, Russia, the Netherlands, Germany and USA are the leading countries. India with 345 commercialized mutants stands third after China (810 mutants) and Japan (481 mutants). Thus mutation breeding is a significant contributor to the development and release of commercial cultivars in several crops and for several traits.

This chapter identifies the physical, environmental and psychosocial risk factors that can compromise worker health and performance. Repetitive movements, awkward postures, excessive force, static positions, contact stress, vibration, poor lighting and unsuitable temperatures are examined as common ergonomic hazards. Their consequences include musculoskeletal disorders, fatigue, reduced concentration, stress, absenteeism and chronic disability. The chapter introduces ergonomic risk-assessment methods and tools such as REBA, RULA and the NIOSH Lifting Equation. It also presents a hierarchy of control measures covering engineering redesign, administrative controls, safer work practices and protective equipment. Workplace examples demonstrate how systematic intervention can reduce injuries while improving productivity and employee satisfaction.

This chapter translates ergonomic principles into practical strategies for improving work and everyday activities. Applications are organized around physical, cognitive and organizational ergonomics, showing how each domain contributes to human performance and system effectiveness. Examples from manufacturing, offices, healthcare, agriculture and domestic settings illustrate the adaptation of workstations, tools, work schedules and environmental conditions. Anthropometric data, task observation and work-study methods are used to identify mismatches between users and systems. The chapter emphasizes participatory assessment and appropriate interventions for reducing physical strain, mental workload and occupational risk. It demonstrates that practical ergonomics can simultaneously improve worker safety, comfort, productivity, product quality and organizational efficiency.

INTRODUCTION

Aquaculture had undergone rapid expansion and intensification in the recent past and has taken the shape of a full-fledged diversified industry. But the risk involved in aquaculture activity has also increased significantly due to the outbreak of diseases which has a devastating effect on the aquaculture crops. Fish are aquatic and poikilothermic, their existence and performance are dominated by the quality of their environment . The aquatic environment is a complex system subject to constant physical and chemical changes brought about by natural and manmade processes. Therefore, choosing the proper site to develop aquaculture facility is paramount to its success.

A disease is an abnormal condition of an organism caused by infection, inherent weakness or environmental stress; it prevents the organism from functioning normally which ultimately leads to death (Avault, 1998). In an aquatic environment, there is a profound balancing of relationship between host (fish), pathogen and the environment existing and this is the fundamental concept to disease susceptibility of fish (Snieszko, 1973). A disease organism may be present in the environment or host, but will not cause disease as long as the host has high natural resistant or the physical condition of the host is strong. Once the imbalance is created to any of the component, opportunistic pathogen invades the host resulting to the outbreak of disease.

The skeleton of thorax (Fig. 3-1) consists of a bony cage formed by thirteen thoracic vertebrae constituting its dorsal boundary and roof, thirteen pairs of ribs forming its lateral walls, the costal cartilages which assist the ribs to form the lateral walls and the sternum forming its floor.

The general architecture of the vertebrae and the vertebral column is described in the chapter on skeletal system under PART ONE (Systemic anatomy) of this book. Only the deviations from the general characteristics of vertebrae as occur in the thoracic vertebrae are described here in the following account on the thoracic vertebrae.

Thoracic vertebrae

These are thirteen in number in ox (Fig. 3-1 A and B) The characteristic features of these vertebrae are the presence of capitular facets for articulation with the head of the rib and the greater development of dorsal spinous processes (neural spines).for attachment of muscles of the back and the supraspinous ligament that helps in the ligamentum nuchae to extend and suspend the head with the body trunk.

Unit of Length

A metre (m) is taken from the international prototype metre at the International Bureau of weights and measures; at 32ºF. (0ºC) = 39.37 inches (in.) = 3.280833 feet (ft.) = centimetres (Cm.). A centimetre (Cm.) = 10 millimetres (mm.) = 10,000 microns (µ) = 0.337 inch (in.) or 10-4cm. A millimetre (mm.) = 1,000 microns (µ) = 0.03937 inch. A micron (mµ) = 1,000 milli-microns (µ) = 3.937x10-5 inch. A milli-micron (mµ) = 0.001 micron or 10-7 cm. A foot (ft.) = 0.3048006 metre (m.) = 30.48006 centimetres (Cm.) = 12 inches (in.)., inch = 2.5 cm. An inch (in.) = 2.539998 centimetres (Cm.) = 25.39998 mm = 25,399.98 microns (µ).

The concept of recurrent selection grew out of need to increase the number of superior genotypes that could be obtained from breeding stock of corn. This could have been possible by increasing the frequency of superior genes in the gene pool and by increasing the chances for genetic recombination to occur. Both can be achieved by recurrent selection which is defined as “a method of breeding designed to concentrate favourable genes scattered among a number of individuals by selecting in each generation among the progeny produced by mating inter se of the selected individuals (or their selfed progeny) of the previous generation.” The original idea behind recurrent selection was proposed first by Hayes and Gerber in 1919 and independently by East and Jones in 1920. Jenkins (1940) was the first to describe the method in detail and Hull (1945) proposed the name ‘recurrent selection’. Each cycle of recurrent selection requires (i) evaluation and selfing of selections and (ii) crossing of the progenies of superior selfed plants in all combinations and bulking of equal amount of seed from each cross. The selection of plants before selfing is possible for maturity, plant height, ear/head characters, kernel characteristics and resistance to diseases and insects. In general, these are the characters which have high heritability. It is clear that the selection of plants before selfing is more for morphological traits and these evaluations do not include yield. Yield evaluations are done on the top cross progenies (crossing of selected plants to a tester). Such top crosses will be grown in the second year of the cycle during which time the selfed seed is held over until the evaluations for yield are over. Or the selfed seed may be grown out as S₁ lines which in turn are selfed. After yield evaluation is over, the selfed seed of superior plants is grown out for crossing. Progenies of selfed plants are crossed in all possible combinations. This is done manually or by growing progenies together in an isolated block. In isolation planting, random mating should be ensured. After manual crossing or random mating in isolation, equal amounts of seed of each are bulked and this bulk seed is used to start the second cycle of selection, selfing and crossing.

Estimation of Calcium in Feeds, Fodders and Faeces
(Titrimetric method of AOAC, 1965)
Principle

When a solution containing calcium is treated with ammonium oxalate, all the calcium present is precipitated as calcium oxalate, The precipitate on treatment with sulphuric acid dissolves, forming calcium sulphate liberating free oxalic acid which is quantitatively estimated by titration against standard N/10 potassium permanganate solution to arrive at the calcium content present in the given solution. The reactions which take place are given below:

When conditions in the plant growing environment are less than the optimum, the plants experience stress which is broadly termed as abiotic stress. Major abiotic stresses impacting crop yield significantly are as follows (Grover et al., 2004; Acquaah, 2007):

Drought: This is the environmental condition caused by lack of adequate rainfall. This is also termed as water stress or desiccation stress. Effects of drought on crop plants are complex and variable and are greatly accentuated by a number of interacting factors. The onset of drought in general has been observed to reduce germination, emergence, hypocotyl length, water uptake and the mobilization of dry matter reserves even at the early growth stages. Drought stress causes a marked reduction in leaf area. Soil moisture availability at the seed germination, anthesis and at post-anthesis growth stages determines as to what extent production potential of crops would be expected in drought-prone situations.

The yield losses in field crops may be attributed to inadequate water availability at the critical growth stages. Crops therefore differ in their susceptibility of growth stages to water stress. Stress exposed plants immediately lower down relative water content (RWC) of their leaves, leaf water potential, osmotic potential. Turgor pressure may also be decreased unless plants have finally adapted to drought by opening of stomata again and improving the water potential. It has been reported that low leaf expansion rate at the early stage and accelerated leaf senescence accompanied by mortality of older leaves at later stage decreases total leaf green area.

Herd medicine considers groups of animals as a single management and health unit rather than focusing only on individual patients. This chapter explains herd health and production medicine, emphasizing disease prevention, productivity, animal welfare and economic efficiency. Major components include nutrition, hygiene, reproduction, vaccination, record keeping, biosecurity and environmental management. Identification of risk factors and subclinical disease is important for reducing production losses. Biosecurity measures include quarantine, sanitation, disease testing, vaccination and control of visitors, vectors and wildlife contact. The chapter promotes preventive veterinary medicine through practical, economical herd-health programmes designed to improve production and reduce disease.

Trace minerals have long been identified as essential components in the diets of domestic livestock species. Trace minerals exist in cells and tissues of the animal body in a variety of chemical combinations, and in characteristic concentrations, depending on the trace mineral consumed and the tissue in which it is metabolized. Concentrations of trace minerals must be maintained within narrow limits if the functional and structural integrity of the tissue is to be maintained and the growth, health, and productivity of the animal are to remain unimpaired. Minerals are as vital to cattle as grass, water or air.

Prevention and control of infectious diseases require coordinated management of animals, environment, biosecurity and vaccination. This chapter discusses practical measures for reducing disease transmission within animal populations. Important strategies include isolation of sick animals, quarantine and testing of new animals, cleaning and disinfection, visitor control, wildlife and vector management, rodent control, deworming, record keeping and disease monitoring. Biosecurity begins at the farm entrance and includes fencing and appropriate sanitation procedures. Vaccination is presented as an important component of integrated disease control rather than a standalone measure. The chapter emphasizes practical prevention to reduce mortality, production losses and antimicrobial use.

7.1. Origin and distribution

• Native to Tropical America, the Amazon Basin.

• Domesticated in Mexico and Central and South America.

• Cultivated in Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil Nadu mainly as intercrop and multi-storey crop with arecanut and coconut from 1970 onwards.

7.2. Economic importance

• Cocoa is a cauliflorus beverage crop.

• Chocolate, hot chocolate, cocoa powder and dry powder are made

• Cocoa butter (the fat) can be extracted.

• Used in Mesoamerican foods including tejate and Mexican drink that also includes maize.

Abstract

From amongst various geomorphic features the landforms generated by the river systems are significant as these are not only the records of the life histories of the rivers, but also the various dynamic processes and phenomenon operated during their origin like tectonic movements, sea level changes, flood histories, climate changes etc. In this connection a study has been conducted using the satellite borne multi spectral remote sensing data in mapping the flood plains, particularly their anomalies like symmetrical, asymmetrical, multilevel, offset and meander scrolled flood plains of some selected rivers from Asia viz: Tamirabharani, Cauvery and Brahmaputra from India, Indus river from Pakisthan and Tineg river from Phillipines. The paper discusses about these and their significance in unfurling the ongoing tectonic movements, sea level changes, palaeo – ongoing strom surge / tidal activities, ongoing earth tremors etc.

Introduction

The Rivers are not simply the carriers of water from the mountain ranges to the plains and to the oceans. But they have well defined and characteristic life histories of their own, with youthful stage in the mountains, mature stage in the plains and the old stage in the coastal regions [6] and the life histories of the rivers are often compared with man’s life. Infact, once the rivers are born on the surface of the Earth, their only aim is to attain the Mean Sea Level (MSL) or the base level of erosion as early as possible and as short as possible. So, in the mountains, which are normally their regions of origin, since the rivers occur thousands of meters above the MSL, flow vibrantly taking advantage of the slope as short and straight drainages to cut deeply the terrain so as to attain the MSL easily. Since such vibrant activities of the rivers, appear to be similar to the human youths, the rivers are said to be in youthful stage in the mountain regions and the erosion is the only dominant activity. But, on climbing down the hills and reaching the plains, as they still occur at hundreds of meters above the MSL, continue to flow towards the sea but with meandering, sinuous and oscillatory paths as they have lost their elevations when compared to the mountains and in this process of meandering perform both erosion and deposition. As such stabilized flow or “Watch and walk phase” of the rivers in the plains resembles the matured behavior of the middle aged Men, it is called as mature stage of the rivers. In contrast, when the rivers reach the coastal zones as they have attained the MSL, they don’t have any energy to carry even their own load and hence dump all the sediments as deltas, oscillate here and there and finally somehow reach the sea. Such Brownian movement of the rivers as replicates the activities of the old Men, called as the old stage of the rivers. Thus the erosion, both erosion and deposition and only the deposition are respectively the activities of the rivers in these three stages, accordingly the respective and contrasting landforms are formed in these three different stages of the rivers.

Certain casualties which are encountered in clinical practice are viz. acute peritonitis, anaphylactic shock, respiratory distress, cardiac arrest, ingestion of foreign bodies, hypomagnesemic tetany, diabetic ketoacidosis, toxic mastitis and poisoning. These patients required critical care, the critical patients are those patients whose conditions are capable of changing on a minute to minute or hourly basis or patients who could rapidly deteriorate in short notice. Proper treatment of emergency disease can help in the diagnosis of specific poisoning or disease on the basis of treatment response.