eChapters

The demand for agricultural and livestock products is rising and the challenge to feed 8 billion people in 2020 is considerably enormous. Further, it is also hard to imagine meeting 2050-projected demand by raising twice as many poultry, 78% more small ruminants, 58% more cattle and 37% more pigs, without further damaging natural resources (Rivera and Lopez, 2012). Hence, sustainable development based on balance of ecology, economics, norms and values are to be considered at various levels of the scale: between food and farming systems, regions, nations and continents (Zipp, 2003). The food systems encompass activities related to the production, processing, distribution, preparation and consumption of food; and the outcomes of these activities contributing to food security (Fig. 14.1).The interactions between and within bio-geo-physical and human environments influence both the activities and the outcomes.

The reproductive system of female domestic animals consists of (1) A pair of ovaries attached with ligaments to the uterus (2) A pair of fallopian tubes the distal ends of which (infundibula) serve to receive ova expelled from the ovary and the proximal ends enter the uterus (3) The uterus proper with its outer smooth myometrium and inner mucous endometrium which either sloughs off periodically or develops in part into a placenta, depending on whether pregnancy occurs (4) Vagina which serves to receive sperm.

Ovaries

The two ovaries are connected to the back of the female with ligaments inside the main body cavity. When puberty, or sexual maturity is reached, the ovaries begin to function with a rhythm or cycle of activity, the most evident manifestation of which is estrus or heat. The estrus period or heat is the period when the female is receptive to the male. The duration of heat in cattle is around 19 hours. The interval between heats in 19½ to 20 days in cattle. The duration of estrus and cycle is variable in different individuals and in different seasons of the year.

The ovarian parenchyma contains a large number of potential egg forming cells. There are many more of these than are required for the breeding life of female. New follicles begin to grow each estrus cycle one of which finally ovulates.

The ovary is covered by the peritoneum except the attached border where the vessels and nerves enter. In most animals the ovary is some what divided into a cortex, in which the follicles with the developing ova are located and a medulla which is rich in blood vessels, lymphaticus and nerves.

Each Graafian follicle normally contains only one developing ovum. The follicle vary in size according to their stage of development, the more advanced project the surface of the ovary slightly.

Since time immemorial, spices have played a vital role in world food trade, due to their varied properties and applications. We primarily depend on spices for flavour and fragrance as well as colour, preservative, inherent therapeutic, medicinal and appetizing properties. The spices that India can offer in abundant quantities are pepper, ginger, turmeric, chili, cardamom, celery, fenugreek, fennel, cumin, dill, coriander, cinnamon, ajowan, cloves, nutmeg, mace etc.

Intellectual property: It can be defined as creations of intellectual brain which has value, utility/application in the society and can be traded in commerce for economic benefits.

Significance of Intellectual Property: The significance of protection of Intellectual Property has been realized for wealth and value creation in a knowledge-based economy. The agricultural scientists are comparatively little aware of IPR issues because their primary mandate has always been the free delivery of technology to the end users particularly the farmers. After the implementation of TRIPS Agreement during 1995, the worldwide focus of scientists and planners was shifted on the development of time appropriate technologies, protection of inventions/ technologies and real time technology transfer through licensing for industrial and agricultural growth leading to overall economic development. Under the changing scenario of global trade, where national governments are entering into bilateral agreements for tackling IPR issues to promote trade, agricultural scientists must also look for managing their intellectual properties in tune with the existing IP legislation of the country.

1 The serotype of aphthovirus causing most outbreaks of FMD in India is

a) A b) O

c) C d) Asia-1

Nutrition is the basis for life to prosper and sustain in the biosphere. There are two modes of nutrition in all species: self-nourishment and crossnourishment. Self-nourishment goes on in the category of organisms known as autotrophs. Cross-nutrition is maintained by the category of consumers categorized as heterotrophs. The autotrophs nourish themselves by utilizing inorganic molecules and energy available in nature, while the heterotrophs derive the nutrients that the autotrophs ‘manufacture’ for themselves. In other words, the heterotrophs derive nutrients from organic molecules. These organic molecules are derived either from the autotrophs directly or from the consumers dependent on autotrophs.

Autotrophs derive energy in its free form (e.g. light) or that available in inorganic molecules (e.g., CO, 

Introduction
1.1. Definition and Significance of Natural Products
Natural products are chemical compounds or substances derived from living organisms in nature. These diverse sources, including plants, animals, fungi, and microorganisms, produce a wide range of chemical structures and functions. The significance of natural products lies in their diverse biological activities and potential applications in therapeutics, agriculture, and various industries. Natural products have been used for centuries in traditional medicine and continue to serve as the foundation for many modern pharmaceuticals, providing templates for the development of synthetic analogues and novel drugs. Their complexity and unique structural features often translate into high biological activity, making them valuable in the discovery of new therapeutic agents. Furthermore, natural products are generally perceived as safer and more environmentally friendly compared to synthetic chemicals, contributing to their appeal in numerous applications.
1.2. Historical Perspective on the Use of Natural Products
The use of natural substances has a long history, with evidence of their application in ancient civilizations such as Egypt, China, India, and Greece. Traditional medical systems, including Ayurveda, Traditional Chinese Medicine, and Indigenous practices, have utilized plants, animals, and minerals to treat various ailments. These early practices laid the foundation for the systematic investigation of natural products and their medicinal potential. One of the earliest documented uses of natural products in medicine is the Ebers Papyrus, an ancient Egyptian text from around 1550 BCE (Packard, 1931). Similarly, ancient Indian texts, such as the Charaka Samhita and the Sushruta Samhita, describe the use of plant-based medicines in Ayurvedic tradition. The scientific investigation of natural products gained momentum in the 19th century, with the isolation of pure compounds, including morphine, quinine, and penicillin.
1.3. Current Trends and Applications
Natural products are invaluable in various industries, serving as a rich source of bioactive compounds for drug development, sustainable agriculture, and functional food products. Many modern medicines, such as the anticancer drug paclitaxel and the antimalarial artemisinin, are derived from natural sources. These naturally-derived compounds often possess unique structures and mechanisms of action that are difficult to replicate synthetically.

Vegetables
Peas
1. Rust
Pathogen
Uromyces fabae (Pers.) de Bary
Symptoms 
The fungus produces characteristics rust pustules on the host. Pustules are mostly found on the leaf blade, though often they may be found on the petiole and stem of pea plants. The sori are small, roundish, open, and powdery as well as brown coloured. In severe infections, the leaf may wither, resulting in considerable damage to the crop. As the plants near maturity, the fungus produces the telial stage on the host.

INTRODUCTION

Genetic engineering (GE) and genetically modified organisms (GMOs) provide powerful tools for sustainable development in agriculture, healthcare and many other industries. GMOs are those which were genetically engineered in a laboratory by incorporating a small foreign DNA fragment carrying a gene of interest into the native DNA of the organism. The foreign gene is attached with the necessary regulatory elements to help its expression in the new genetic environment. Genetically modified (GM) crops currently account for some 16 percent of the world’s land planted with soybean, maize, cotton and canola. The global demand for food is increasing because of the growing world population and decreasing arable land. At the same time food and agricultural systems have to respond to several changes such as increasing international competition, globalization and rising consumer demands for improved food quality, safety, health enhancement and convenience. Modern biotechnology involving the use of rDNA technology/genetic engineering has emerged as a powerful tool with many potential application for improving the quantity and quality of food supply. Foods derived from genetically modified crops, commonly referred to as genetically modified food and food ingredients have already become available worldwide with aim of enhancing productivity, decreasing the use of certain agricultural chemicals, modifying the inherent properties of crops, improving the nutritional value or even increasing shelf life. Results of DNA modification may not be limited only to the particular characteristics of the replaced gene. It is therefore important to ensure that when these organisms are released into nature they do not harm the environment or human health [EFSA, 2006]. Such concerns have led to broader interests in the theme of risk assessment in the release of GMOs. A cautious approach is necessary to assess environmental risks which may occur due to introduction of recombinant organisms in the natural environment [Johnson et al., 2007].

Abstract

For thousands of years, plants have provided medicine to human and animals. People still depend on plants for food and shelter. The present surveys and investigation covers Jasrota Wildlife Sanctuary, Kathua District (J&K) situated in Southeastern parts of Asia (India). This communication mainly focused on ten high value plant species belonging to eight families of medicinal value being used to cure different types of ailment growing in Jasrota Wildlife Sanctuary and surrounding areas of Kathua district. These species are Aerva sanguinolenta (L.) Blume, Centella asiatica L. (Urb.) Fl., Cissampelos pareira L., Colebrookea oppositifolia Sm., Cryptolepis dubia M.R.Almeida, Holarrhena pubescens Wall. ex G.Don, Justicia adhatoda L., Tinospora cordifolia (Willd.) Miers ex Hook.f. & Thomson, Vitex negundo L. and Woodfordia fruticosa (L.) Kurz. It also deal with morphological enumeration, ecology and habitat, ethnobotanical uses and active chemical constituent present in studied plant species.

Water is the only substance that exists in the atmosphere in all the three phases, i.e., solid, liquid and gas. The moisture on the earth's surface is in a constant phase change. The moisture content of the atmosphere is about 0.035% of all fresh water. The atmosphere receives its supply of moisture from the earth's surface through evaporation from oceans, lakes, rivers, damp soil, etc. and through transpiration from vegetation. Water vapour is the gaseous state of water and is invisible. The amount of water vapour present in the atmosphere is called atmospheric moisture or humidity. It is a measure of the amount of water vapour dissolved in the air, not including any liquid water or ice falling through the air.

Water vapour is constantly being cycled between the atmosphere and the earth's surface. The input rate (the rate at which water vapour enters the atmosphere from the ground through evaporation) and output rate (the rate at which water moves from the atmosphere to ground through precipitation) are equal. The average length of time that individual molecules of water remain in the atmosphere is called the residence time. It can be found by dividing the mass of the substance in the atmosphere (in kilograms) by the rate (in kg per year) at which the substance enters to and exists in the atmosphere. The total volume of atmospheric water vapour at any instance over the globe is about 14000 km³, which is 0.001% of the hydrosphere.

Although water vapour is lighter than air, the combination of higher temperatures and the ocean source tends to restrict it to the lower atmosphere. The decrease of water vapour with elevation is quite important in many meteorological processes. Infact, most of the water vapour is contained within the lower 5 km of the atmosphere (> 90%) and more than half is actually contained within the lowest 1.5 to 2 km. Less than 5 - 6% of the water is above 5 km, and less than 1% is in the stratosphere.

India is the seventh largest country in the world with a total geographical area of 328.73 million ha and has second largest population after China. The gross cropped area is 198.36 million hectares of which 70% is under rainfed cultivation. Around 55 to 60 per cent of the total population depends on agriculture and allied activities.

One of the important features of India prevalence is varied agro-climatic conditions; which enables to strengthen the horticulture industry. Many numbers of horticultural crops namely fruits, vegetables, ornamental and flower crops, spices and condiments, plantation crops, aromatic and medicinal plants, etc. are grown in almost all the parts of country. Thus, horticulture sector has become one of the major drivers of growth in agriculture having major share in agriculture GDP.

Introduction

Financial inclusion has become a global agenda because it is now well recoganised that a nation can prosper only if it ensures inclusive growth. Financial access and use of formal financial system, the means of financial inclusion, have positive association with inclusive growth (Levine and Demirguc-Kunt, 2008). The financial systems which are more inclusive have provided broader access to appropriate financial services to ensure that the benefit can be availed by poor and disadvantaged sections of the society (Akter, 2016). Since, financial inclusion is the process of ensuring availability of f inancial services and well-timed and sufficient credit as required by vulnerable groups such as low income segment and weaker segment of the society at an affordable cost (Rangarajan Committee on financial inclusion, 2005). Thus, the study of financial inclusion on the basis of socio economic factors is the key to investigate individual characteristics associated with financial inclusion (Allen, Kunt, Klapper, Peria, 2012). Understanding financial usage on the basis of socio economic factors enables framing appropriate financial inclusion strategies to achieve financial inclusion in real sense. Many international agencies like International Monetary Fund, Asian Development Bank, World Bank release data on financial inclusion around the world. Global findex report is published by World Bank after the interval of every three years to present the picture of financial inclusion on various socio economic parameters. Around the world, 74% adults, 72% female, 70% income poorest population, 63% out of labour force population and 66% rural population report to have account at formal financial system (World Bank Global findex report, 2021).

Large Ruminants Neurological examination of farm animals is an essential part of the physical examination, especially when there’s a suspicion of neurological disease. The examination begins with observing the animal’s gait and how it interacts with its surroundings. The main goal is to determine whether the neurological issue is primary (originating in the nervous system) or secondary (caused by something else) and to pinpoint where the problem is in the nervous system ( central nervous system -CNS or the peripheral nervous system –PNS ). When examining an animal, it is best to start with procedures that cause the least distress. Painful tests or more invasive checks should be done at the end of the examination.

This chapter introduces the scientific principles underlying the structure, properties, processing, preservation, and utilization of wood. It examines the anatomical organization and chemical composition of wood and explains relationships between structure and important physical and mechanical properties. The chapter also discusses moisture interaction, dimensional behaviour, mechanical performance, durability, seasoning, preservation, and wood-processing technologies. Engineered wood products and modern approaches to wood utilization are considered as important components of forest-product development. Together, these topics provide an understanding of wood as an important renewable material and its efficient, durable, and sustainable utilization.

Abstract

Extreme weather conditions often cause considerable damage. Much of this damage can be mitigated if people are better prepared for impending disasters. Therefore, public authorities and private enterprises have been investing in Early Warning Systems (EWS). Environmental degradation and destruction of natural resources has been faced by humans and other organisms for hundreds of years. Some of these incidences have been caused by natural climatic and geologic processes and others by human activities. These natural disasters have been increasing over time due to factors such as urbanization, population growth, destruction of natural environment and climatic change. Biogenic and anthropogenic related environmental and natural resources degradation has direct economic and health impacts on affected regions. Land and water degradation as well as disasters such as floods and droughts have led to famine, hunger, disease, death and created many other problems. It is necessary, therefore, to keep focused on the ultimate goal of reducing disasters by all possible means. India must invest generously on infrastructure and resources for preparation of early warning systems and disaster preparedness.

There is an urgent need to take up productivity improvement programmes in the senile plantations, with fresh stock supported with appropriate and integrated combination of inputs, pruning and grafting as well as training techniques taking care of health, vigour and productiveness. This require proven technology implementation through individual farmers, farmers’ cooperatives, self-help groups, NGOs, growers’ associations and commodity organizations. However, technology depends upon the nature and requirement of a particular fruit crop. The rejuvenation technology for transformation of old senile orchards into young productive ones in sustained manner requires well-planned and concerted efforts. Though processes and procedures require scientific skill with precision in application/implementation as these important commercial crops have been associated with livelihood of many farmers/growers, i.e. why economic production is of utmost important for the growers as it holds true for all the region specific important commercial fruit crops in general.

The successful translation of rejuvenation technology in old senile orchards includes sequential operational steps. They should be followed in scientific manner for different category/group of fruit crops.

Precipitation is the deposition of atmospheric moisture on earth. All the water sources on the earth depend on precipitation only. Precipitation involves condensation, growth of hygroscopic nuclei, cooling of nuclei at different stages and their fall on to the earth's surface. If the cloud particles are too small and remain suspended in the sky, they may not fall on the earth. There may be several clouds but no precipitation. Under certain conditions, water particles formed tend to fall but do not reach the surface since they get evaporated on the way. Only when the cloud droplets or ice crystals grow to certain size and can no longer remain floating due to buoyancy of air, do they fall as precipitation.

FORMS OF PRECIPITATION

Precipitation form is the state that the moisture is in, i.e., liquid, freezing, or frozen (solid). Because atmospheric conditions vary greatly both geographically and seasonally, several different forms of precipitation are possible. All forms of precipitation are collectively termed hydrometeors. Hydrometeors have been classified into 50 specific types. Out of these precipitation forms, only rain (liquid form) and snow (solid form) make significant contribution to total precipitation. In many parts of the world, the term rainfall is used interchangeably with precipitation.

Sustainability does not denote a fixed state of things. It is a dynamic phenomenon: a phenomenon that tends to advance towards a higher state of being. The range of a journey of sustainability extends from nothing to everything, from a simple system to a more complex system, or from an unstable or less stable system to a stable or more stable system. Speaking in ecological terms, the transformation of unproductive desert land into a forest in ecological climax over time is how the phenomenon of sustainability works.

The term ‘sustainable development’ was first of all used in 1980 in the World Conservation Strategy (IUCN-UNEP-WWF 1980). However, this term was brought into the focus of the world for the first time in the United Nations World Commission on Environment and Development (WCED) Report, popularly known as the Brundtland Commission Report Our Common Future in 1987. Sustainable Development in the WCED Report has been defined as Development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of the future generations to meet their own needs.

This chapter introduces the scientific, biological, chemical, and economic importance of medicinal and aromatic plants associated with forest and allied systems. It examines their classification and diversity, chemical constituents, harvesting practices, processing, value addition, and extraction techniques. The chapter highlights the potential of these plants as valuable biological resources and explores approaches for their productive utilization. Sustainable harvesting, appropriate processing, and value addition are important for improving their economic potential while supporting conservation and responsible management of plant resources.