eChapters

1. Rearing of fowls for eggs and flesh is known as  ….

 a) Poultry keeping b) Husbandry   

 c) Sericulture d) Apiculture

 2. The types of poultry birds are  ….

 a) Broilers b) Layers  

 c) General purpose birds d)  All of these

 3. The layers are reared mainly for  ….

 a) Flesh b) Eggs  

 c) For both d) None of these

 4. Which of the following are layers?

 a) Anconas  b) Australorp   

 c) White leghorn d) All of these

 5. Broilers are reared for  ….

 a) Flesh b) Fish  

 c) Ornamental purpose d) All of these

Management of the poultry house environment forms an essential aspect towards maximizing production performance. Generally, proper maintenance of poultry litter is seldom given emphasis. The condition of litter significantly influences bird’s performance and ultimately affects the economy for rearing. The litter is defined as the bedding materials of around 5-6 cm height consisting of locally available materials like rice husk, peanut hull, wood shavings, paper shreds, sawdust or groundnut hulls. These materials can be used alone or in combination to rear the birds on floor under deep litter system of management. The excreta, feathers, spilled feed and water are mixed with bedding material, get further decomposed due to heat and bacterial action resulting in built-up-litter towards the end of rearing.

The review provides an explanation of the Indian poultry market’s trend in management. Everything you need to know about diseases, their attacks, processing, production, feeding, and market trends is included in this review. For farmers, raising poultry is a vital source of revenue that allows them to meet their basic necessities. Because of the high consumption rate and current population growth, there is a sharp increase in demand for chicken meat. Meat consumption is required to provide additional nutritious intake. Generally speaking, the poultry sector plays a critical role in creating micro and macrobusiness opportunities and enhancing human nutrition. The Indian economy is dominated by small-scale commercial ventures for women and the delivery of manure for agricultural purposes. Animal health is ensured by the supply of high-quality feed, which maintains nutritional values. The weight and age of the chickens, their rate of development, the quantity of eggs they produce, the climate (cold or rainy weather increases energy consumption), and the amount of nutrition they acquire from foraging all affect how much feed and how much nutrition it contains. This review article includes general information about poultry

Introduction

Poultry farming is an emerging activity for enhancing nutrition and providing livelihood support to the farmers of this country. Since two decades, this component emerge as the fastest growing segment of agriculture where the broiler segment having a growth rate of more than 10% and the egg production 5-6% per year. As per the report by USDA’s Agricultural Marketing Service, India has one of the world’s largest and fastest growing poultry, ranked third in egg production (FAOSTAT) and sixth in broiler meat production. Poultry farming is lucrative because there is minimum investment to start, rapid return, high feed conversion ratio and provides continuous source of income for the farm.

2.1. Breeds of poultry

Poultry sector has been divided into two broad classes based on the management practices. First one is commercial poultry farming which is the well-organized sector. Second one is backyard poultry farming which plays supportive role for rural economy. The commercial farming practices can divide into two subclasses: layer and broiler industry. Commercial poultry farming provides primary source of income to the farmers and widely influenced by market driven forces. Backyard poultry farming comprises dual purpose birds as both layer and broiler. It supports the rural household with nutritional security, subsidiary income generation and provides the employment to women which
Egg production by backyard and commercial poultry farm
Out of total egg production of 103.3 billion numbers eggs, commercial poultry farming is producing 84.91 billion number eggs whereas, backyard poultry farming is producing 18.41 billion numbers contributing 82.2 percent and 17.8 percent of total production of egg respectively (BAHS, 2019). 

Poultry is one of the fastest-growing industries within agriculture and allied sectors worldwide. This rapid expansion results in the generation of substantial amounts of waste, including poultry manure, dead birds, hatchery wastes, and abattoir wastes. Proper treatment and scientific disposal of these wastes are crucial to avoid significant threats to both avian health and human safety. Unmanaged poultry wastes can lead to the spread of diseases among birds, resulting in considerable economic losses due to mortality and decreased productivity. Additionally, improper waste disposal can contribute to soil and groundwater pollution. Globally, an estimated 400 million chickens are processed weekly, generating a vast amount of waste. For instance, a broiler produces about 0.09 kg of manure daily, while a laying hen produces around 0.18 kg. Effective management of poultry waste requires a comprehensive understanding of its composition and the various physical, chemical, and microbiological processes that influence the fate of potential pollutants, particularly when the waste is applied to land.

Abstract

Various studies put the percent of rural women engaged in agriculture and related activities in India around 65-70%. A majority of them are from economically and socially deprived category and qualify as “poor” or below poverty line. In rural India women play the role of agricultural labourer, fuel gatherer, food provider and home maker. Both central and state governments have framed and implemented various programmes to improve the living conditions of rural people. Measures have also been taken to provide employment and alleviate poverty. Generally these programmes fall into the category of wage employment, self-employment, housing and habitat development, and watershed development programmes. The last mentioned focuses on various water supply schemes to the rural poor and socially deprived. These programmes are evaluated in this paper. Although they are intended to benefit all the poor and jobless in rural Karnataka, the benefits reach women too because of their role as homemakers and food providers. Be it wage earned or drinking water or shelter, these programmes, if implemented sincerely, make the life of farm women less laborious and more comfortable.

I. INTRODUCTORY OUTLINE

The post-Vienna legal phase is remarkably known for revolutionary changes across the global wherein the third generation of human rights became the hallmark for the comity of nations and a liberational instrument to come out of nightmarish experiences of poverty and hunger.1 On the other hand the post-GATTised legal ordering is known for much publicized and debatable conclusion of Trade Related Aspect of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPs) and creation of World Trade Organisation (WTO).2 This new jurisprudential polemics soon evoked fierce scrutiny from the stand point of human right and poverty among third world countries.3 At home, it is dubbed as ‘bleeding operation with the dubious promise of benign global competition’, ‘de facto nullity of constitutional goal of social welfare’ and ‘contra- constitutional coup.4 Since India has become a member of WTO it indulged into massive rehabilitation and fundamental mutation of IPR regime. Despite the fact that it has a stark distinction of being a grain- surplus and food and livelihood insecure country. An inventory of over forty five million tonnes of wheat and rice in granaries remains ready for consumption. On the other hand over two hundred fifty million people generally go to bed partially hungry every day. There is a near consensus on the need to banish hunger but the realities on the ground remain that even at the risk of raising hopes the goal of food security may not be realized for generations.5 At home under the cover of food security the government is keeping millions of tonnes of food out of reach of the poor people.6 In fact India’s record breaking 200 plus million tonnes harvest is the result of steep fall in purchasing power of poor. The myth of surplus is based on sending hundreds of millions of human being hungry to their beds.7 Taken to its logical end we have abundance of food, surplus of hunger and scarcity of vision under the garb of food security.8

INTRODUCTION
A PTO (Power Take Off) in a tractor transfers mechanical power from the engine to various tractor implements or attachments, such as a rotavator, thresher, straw reaper, or super seeder, through a PTO shaft. In India, the PTO is typically located at the rear of the tractor, while in several other countries, a front PTO is also available to power front-mounted machines. Different PTO-driven implements require varying amounts of PTO horsepower (HP) for operation. PTO horsepower indicates the power available for driving tractor attachments, and it is transmitted to these implements via the PTO shaft.
The rear-mounted power outlet, known as the PTO, is used to operate PTOdriven implements like a rotavator, power harrow, and baler. Tractors are used not only for towing implements for tillage and sowing but also for stationary tasks such as crop threshing and water pumping from tube wells, which are powered by the PTO. The PTO-driven implements require a specific amount of horsepower, referred to as PTO HP, to function. This PTO HP is the portion of the engine power used to operate the implements, and it is always lower than the tractor’s total horsepower due to friction losses. Additionally, the PTO shaft derives its power from the gearbox.
There are two standard PTO speeds: 540 rpm and 1000 rpm. This standardization was introduced to ensure that implements are designed to operate efficiently at these speeds. For splines, the 540 rpm shaft has 6 splines, while the 1000 rpm shaft features 21 splines.
THE INVENTION OF PTO IN THE TRACTOR INDUSTRY
In 1918, the International Harvester Company (IHC) introduced the Power Take Off (PTO) in tractors, with Edward A. Johnston, an IHC engineer, being the first to develop the concept after being inspired by homemade PTO systems in France. The 8-16 model became the first commercial tractor to feature PTO. Two

10.8.1. Function

A power take-off (PTO) is a splined drive shaft on a tractor that can be used to provide power to an attachment or a stand alone machine. PTO shaft gets the drive from hydraulic pump shaft. This in turn gets drive from engine. PTO is designed to be easily connected and disconnected (Fig 10.8.1.). It is used to operate implements, viz., rotavator, fertilizer spreader, duster and many more machines which are stationary such as threshers, water pump and portable flour mill. These shafts either run at 540 rpm with 6 splines in the shaft or at 1000 rpm with 21 splines in the shaft. But many old tractors have 540 rpm PTO. The present day equipment is designed to operate with 1000 rpm PTO shaft. The manufacturers of old tractor models provide an auxiliary gear box which increases the speed of PTO to 1000 rpm. Selection of implements, equipment and machinery should be done on the basis of available tractor PTO speed.

Power transmission through belts, pullies, gears, speed and size

Both stationary and portable types of agricultural machines make use of various types of power transmitting devices for doing useful work.

Some of these power transmitting devices are meant to convert rotary motion into linear motion or oscillating motion.

This transmission of power from generating unit to useful unit is possible through belts, pullies, gears, cams and couplings are also employed to transmit power. eg. The self propelled combine is a machine which employs most of the above power transmitting devices.

In some machines the belt drive is used to transmit power between two parallel shafts placed a short distance apart. In others a sprocket and chain drive is preferred, when the two parallel shafts to be operated

Q. 1 In which of the following tractor components, the speed reduction takes place? 
(A) Gear box        (B) Differential
(C) Final drive       (D) All of the above

Mechanical power is usually transmitted from one shaft to another by using belts, ropes, chains, gears and clutches.

1. Belts and ropes are utilized if distance between the shafts is large. Belts and ropes are flexible and bend easily. But slip occurs between the belt and the pulley.

INTRODUCTION
Transmission is a mechanism designed to reduce speed, consisting of multiple gears. It functions as a series of gears and shafts that transmit engine power to the tractor wheels. This system includes various components that enable both forward and reverse movement of the tractor, adapting to different field conditions. The entire route through which power flows from the engine to the wheels is referred to as the power train.
FUNCTIONS OF THE POWER TRANSMISSION SYSTEM
1. To transfer power from the engine to the tractor’s rear wheels.
2. To provide reduced speeds to the rear wheels as required.
3. To adjust the ratio between wheel speed and engine speed to match varying field conditions.
4. To facilitate power transmission through a right-angle drive, as the crankshaft and rear axle are typically positioned at right angles to each other.
The power transmission system is composed of several components: clutch, transmission gears, differential, final drive, rear axle, and rear wheels. Together, these components ensure the effective transmission of power.

Introduction

The acute food shortage was a major challenge in confronting the development of the country after independence with rapidly increasing population. Massive financial assistance of credit and subsidy under various rural development programmes unveiled by government could not yield desired impact on poverty and unemployment. The benefits of farm research did not reach the resource poor farmers. Several researchers indicated that the devolution of democratic decision-making at the village level was lacking.

The major task of bridging the gap between farmers and the scientific knowledge is in the hands of extension workers who should act as “conveyer belts” in communicating appropriate scientific knowledge and skills already available to the farmer in a smooth and acceptable form and in securing the adoption of these improved techniques. They must assess the intentions prevailing in the minds of rural people, their relationships and interactions, their groups, their institutions, their organizations and the culture, which influence the behaviour at large. They need to understand their motives, reactions, receptivity to new ideas, hidden resources of rural people and social and cultural obstacles prevailing in the society with their active participation.

To elucidate the hidden facts from the well-knit social, cultural and behavioral patterns, a family of approach known as “Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA)” techniques is widely employed to understand the existing farming situations, problems, and opportunities in the rural areas. PRA techniques can also be used in evaluation and impact assessment in agricultural and allied enterprises and projects that can indicate the success and failure to plan for better future.

Practical application is essential for developing competence in programme evaluation and agricultural extension programme management. This chapter translates the concepts, theories and evaluation frameworks presented in the preceding chapters into structured learning activities. The practical exercises are designed to develop students’ ability to analyse programmes, identify appropriate evaluation approaches, develop indicators, collect and interpret evidence, and communicate evaluation findings. Activities include literature searches on Utilization-Focused Evaluation, Values-Engaged Evaluation, Empowerment Evaluation and Theory-Driven Evaluation; field visits to extension organizations; preparation of evaluation proposals; review and meta-evaluation of programme evaluation reports; SWOT analysis; programme activity identification; Gantt chart preparation; application of Bennett’s Hierarchy; Logical Framework Analysis using a 4 × 4 matrix; and assessment of agricultural technology impacts through KVK/ATIC visits. The chapter also provides practical exercises on Environmental Impact Assessment, Social Impact Assessment, Participatory Monitoring and Evaluation, and comprehensive evaluation report writing and presentation. These activities are intended to strengthen analytical thinking, practical skills, evidence-based decision-making and professional competence in agricultural extension evaluation

Practical applications and field techniques in spices breeding are essential for developing new varieties that meet the needs of farmers, processors, and consumers. These techniques involve a combination of traditional methods and modern technologies to select, test, and propagate spice plants with desirable traits. Here’s an overview of the key practical applications and field techniques used in spices breeding:
1. Selection and hybridization
• Mass selection: This traditional technique involves selecting the bestperforming plants from a large population based on desirable traits such as yield, flavor, and disease resistance. The selected plants are then propagated
to create the next generation.
• Hybridization: Cross-breeding different varieties or species of spices to combine desirable traits from both parents. This technique is used to create hybrids with improved characteristics, such as higher yield, better flavor, or
enhanced resistance to pests and diseases.
• Example: Cross-pollinating different varieties of chili peppers to produce hybrids with higher capsaicin content for spicier flavors.