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Immunohistochemistry (IHC) is a vital research technique that employs labeled antibodies to identify and locate antigens in tissue sections. It has recently gained widespread popularity in anatomic pathology research globally. This method combines immunological, histological, and biochemical approaches to detect specific antigens using antibodies designed for those antigens. Antigen-antibody reactions are visualized through various methods under a microscope. When this technique is applied to individual cells or involves labeling at the electron microscopic level (using the immunogold technique), it is called immunocytochemistry (ICC). The overall process of performing immunohistochemistry or immunocytochemistry is known as ‘immunolabeling.’
Basic Principle of Immunohistochemistry
Antibodies are crucial in triggering an immune response by precisely recognizing and binding to foreign molecules. This specific interaction between an antibody and an antigen leads to the formation of an antibodyantigen complex, which is fundamental to immune reactions. This principle forms the cornerstone of immunohistochemistry.

Lectins are sugar-binding proteins or glycoprotein of non-immune origin. In 1954 William C. Boyd alone and then together with Elizabeth Shapleigh introduced term ‘lectin’ from the Latin word lego- ‘chosen’ (from the verb legere ‘to choose’ or ‘pick out’).The earliest description of a lectin is believed to have been given by Peter Hermann Stillmark in his doctoral thesis presented in 1888 to the University of Dorpat. Stillmark isolated ricin, an extremely toxic hemagglutinin, from seeds of the castor plant (Ricinus communis).
History
Lectins, although first discovered more than 100 years ago in plants, and defined by their ability to selectively recognize specific carbohydrate structures, are ubiquitous in living organisms and throughout nature. Long before a deeper understanding of their numerous biological functions, the plant lectins, also known as phytohemagglutinins, were noted for their particularly high specificity for foreign HYPERLINK https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glycoconjugate glycoconjugates (e.g. those of fungi, invertebrates, and animals) and used in biomedicine for blood cell testing and in biochemistry for fractionation.
Hundreds of lectins of plant and animal origin have been described, and the list continues to increase. The first lectin to be purified on a large scale and available on a commercial basis was concanavalin A, which is now the mostused lectin for characterization and purification of sugar-containing molecules and cellular structures. The legume lectins are probably the most well-studied lectins.

Scanning electron-microscopes are available nowadays which operate at high vacuum as well as low vacuum mode. Low vacuum mode allows viewing of wet samples, but compromise on very high resolution and high magnification images. In high vacuum mode the samples must be absolutely dry and free of any organic contaminants to avoid gas molecules interfering with both the primary electron beam and the secondary or backscattered electrons emitted from the sample. Biological specimens which are largely composed of water, necessitate additional preparatory steps to ensure that structure of the organism is retained in its natural form.
Sample preparation is essential in scanning electron microscopy. Improper sample preparations can undermine the quality of results and lead to false conclusions. SEM, unlike TEM, allows the processing of larger sized organisms and tissues. For Biological samples the smallest representative sample size should be used as the microscope’s detection capacity is as much as 1μm from the sample surface.
Samples for SEM preparations are normally collected by biopsy/ dissection/ sacrificing of an animal to remove tissues from the main body. Incisions should be done with fresh sharp blades to avoid tissue deformation from the physical forces applied with blunt blades. Collected samples should be immediately transferred to vial containing the fixative for fixation.
Microbial cultures fixation of bacteria and fungus needs to be carried out under strict safety measures. Biosafety cabinets should be used wherever possible and sample should be removed from the biosafety cabinets only after the

Electron-microscopy, as one of the several tools in diagnostic pathology and cell biology has contributed significantly to reveal several unimagined structures in modern era of science and technology. Several branches of biology and biomedical sciences like anatomy, pathology, physiology, biochemistry, microbiology rely on the transmission electron-microscope. This is used not only to visualize biological materials, but also to analyze the chemical makeup and physical properties of biological materials. Correlate electron microscopic and biochemical studies of cellular processes transcended the boundaries between structurally and functionally oriented sciences. The first electronmicroscope was developed by Max Knoll and Ernst Ruska in 1932 in Germany. Ruska’s efforts were appreciated by awarding him Noble Prize in Physics in 1986. The Siemens Corporation introduced the first commercial transmission electron- microscope in 1938-39 and its commercial marketing started in 1940 by different manufacturers like Hitachi (Japan), JEOL (Japan), Philips (Holland), Zeiss (Germany). Transmission electron-microscope projects electrons through a very thin section of tissue to produce a two dimensional image on a phosphorescent screen. The brightness of a particular area of the image is proportional to the number of electrons that are transmitted through the specimen. A resolution of 0.2 nm can be achieved in the transmission electron-microscope. The first electron-micrograph of biological tissue was published by Marton in 1934. Albert Claude and George Palade were awarded the Nobel Prize (1974) in the field of Medicine for their accomplishments in cell biology employing electron-microscopy

Confocal microscopy is a powerful tool that creates sharp images of a specimen that would otherwise appear blurred when viewed under a conventional microscope. This is achieved by excluding most of the light from the specimen that is not from the microscope’s focal plane.The image thus obtained has less haze and better contrast than that of a conventional microscope and represents a thin cross-section of the specimen. Laser scanning confocal microscopy has become an invaluable tool for imaging thin optical sections in living and fixed specimens ranging in thickness up to 100 micrometers. In fact the confocal microscope is often capable of revealing the presence of single molecule.
The modern confocal microscopes can be considered as completely integrated electronic systems, where the optical microscope plays a central role in a configuration that consists of one or more electronic detectors, a computer (for image display, processing, output, and storage) and several laser systems combined with wave length selection devices and a beam scanning assembly. In most advanced systems, integration between the various components is so through that the entire confocal microscope is often collectively referred to as a digital or video imaging, capable of producing electronic images.
Principle
Current instruments are highly modified from the earliest versions, but the principle of confocal imaging that was developed by Marvin Minsky is employed in all modern confocal microscopes. The image in a confocal microscope is achieved by scanning one or more focused beams of light, usually from a laser or arc-discharge source, across the specimen. This point of illumination is brought to focus in the specimen by the objective lens and laterally scanned using some form of scanning device under computer control. The sequences of points of light from the specimen are detected by a photomultiplier tube (PMT) through a pinhole (or in some cases, a slit) and the output from the

Characterization of Oct-4/Sox-2 Transcription Factors by Immunostaining for Characterization of Stem Cells
Protocol
1) The cultured cells at a density of 70,000/well in a 6 well plate or 35,000/ well in a 12 well plate are used for immunostaining.
2) The cells are washed with Dulbecco’s phosphate buffered saline (DPBS) for two times and the cells are fixed using 4% paraformaldehyde for 20 minutes at room temperature.
3) After fixation, the spent Paraformaldehyde is removed and the fixed cells are washed with 1000μl of 1x DPBS for 2 times by clockwise and anti-clockwise rotation of the plate slowly.
4) About 400μl of 3% blocking buffer was added to the wells and plate was covered with aluminum foil to prevent the exposure of light and stored at room temperature for 90 minutes.
5) After blocking, the cells are again washed once with DPBS. About 500 μl of primary antibody Oct-4 in the dilution of 1:40 is added to the well and stored at 4°C over night.
6) After overnight staining with primary antibody, the antibody solution is removed from the wells and washed with DPBS for 2 times.
7) Take 500 μl of secondary antibody anti-rabbit-FITC diluted with antibody buffer solution is added in the ratio of 1:200 and cover with aluminium foil and incubated for 90 minutes.
8) Secondary antibody is removed and washed with DPBS.

Nanotechnology is manipulation of matter on an atomic, molecular, and supramolecular scale. The earliest, widespread description of nanotechnology referred to the particular technological goal of precisely manipulating atoms and molecules for fabrication of macroscale products, also now referred to as molecular nanotechnology.
Nanotechnology as the manipulation of matter with at least one dimension sized from 1 to 100 nanometers. This definition reflects the fact that quantum mechanical effects are important at this quantum- realm scale, and so the definition shifted from a particular technological goal to a research category inclusive of all types of research and technologies that deal with the special properties of matter which occur below the given size threshold. It is therefore common to see the plural form "nanotechnologies" as well as "nanoscale technologies" to refer to the broad range of research and applications whose common trait is size.
Introduction
A nanometer (nm) is one thousand millionth of a meter. A single human hair is about 80,000 nm wide; a red blood cell is approximately 7,000 nm wide, a DNA molecule 2 to 2.5 nm, and a water molecule almost 0.3 nm. The term ”nanotechnology” was created by Norio Taniguchi of Tokyo University in 1974 to describe the precision manufacture of materials with nanometer tolerances, but its origins date back to Richard Feynman’s 1959 talk ”There’s Plenty of Room at the Bottom” in which he proposed the direct manipulation of individual atoms as a more powerful form of synthetic chemistry. Eric Drexler of MIT expanded Taniguchi’s definition and popularised nanotechnology in his 1986 book “Engines of Creation: The Coming Era of Nanotechnology”. On a nanoscale, i.e. from around 100 nm down to the size of atoms (approximately 0.2 nm) the properties of materials can be very different from those on a

Extraction of DNA from Tissue
(Using HiPurATM Multi-sample DNA Purification Kit)
Kit contents
Re-suspension buffer, Lysis solution, Prewash solution concentrate, Wash solution concentrate, Elution buffer, Proteinase K, HiElute Miniprep Spin Column (Capped), Collection tubes (uncapped), Collection tubes Dilute the prewash, wash solution and Proteinase K according to the kit.
Protocol
Prepare tissue
Weigh 25 mg of tissue, add approximately 3 ml of 0.8 per cent of normal saline. Homogenize the tissue with homogenizer or with mortar and pestle. Transfer the homogenized tissue with saline to a microcentrifuge tube. Centrifuge at 14000 rpm for 10 minutes. Discard the supernatant and use the pelleted tissue for further lysis.
Digest tissue
Add 180 μl of resuspension buffer and 20 μl of Proteinase K solution to the pelleted tissue in microcentrifuge tube. Mix by vortexing. Incubate the sample at 55oC until the tissue is completely digested (2-4 hours) in a shaking water bath. Vortex briefly after complete digestion.

Cellular stains are the colouring compounds used to impart different colours to varied type of cellular components and help in the demonstration of different micro-organisms such as bacteria, viral inclusions, fungal hyphae etc. The staining techniques enhance the contrast of tissue sections at microscopic level including histological, histopathological and cytological grounds. Before applying the special staining techniques on tissue sections few points which should be taken care include:
• Use of appropriate volume, concentration and type of fixative for preservation of tissue samples.
• Use of fixative with better compatibility as per the nature of tissues to be preserved.
• The tissue sections collected should not be very thick (5 mm approximately).
• Staining solutions should be immediately prepared where so ever required.
• Tissues must be sectioned with an ideal thickness between 4-6 microns.
Different types of stains routinely used to demonstrate varied type of cellular components and microorganisms:
Grocott’s Methenamine Silver (GMS) Staining Method
The fungal hyphae can be better demonstrated with Grocott’s Methenamine Silver stain (GMS). The basis for colouration of fungus is entirely based upon the oxidation of chromic acid forming aldehyde from the cell wall constituents of fungus and thereby reducing the silver-hexamine complex. The silverhexamine complex leads to the reduction of nascent Ag ions and leading the blackening of fungus in tissue sections.

“A Message of Wisdom from Dead to Living”
Postmortem examination is systematic exposure and scientific examination of tissue and organs of an animal carcass or cadaver or dead body to determine the nature, extent and cause of death. It is an important diagnostic procedure which supports the diagnosis of a disease in an animal flock or herd. Several times the clinical diagnosis alone may not be sufficient to determine the process of disease occurrence. In such cases gross and histopathological investigations may give a valuable outlook to understand the mechanism of the disease process.
Role of necropsy examination
1) Critical necropsy examination complements the clinical medicine by providing a sure short supplement to the clinicians and students.
2) Necropsy examination pave a path for rational diagnosis of cause of death.
3) Necropsy examination helps to assess the line of treatment and diagnostic protocols followed during the illness.
4) Systemic necropsy examination helps to understand the pathogenesis of disease condition in a better manner.
5) Necropsy examination of animals died in a particular region helps to prevent the life of several animals in future.
6) Thorough necropsy examination in animals is an important tool to provide an expert advice to issue Insurance Certificate.
7) Post-mortem examination is often helpful to investigate the death of the animals counted under vetro-legal or forensic aspects.

The history of genetics dates from the classical era with contributions by Hippocrates, Aristotle and Epicurus. Modern biology began with the work of the Augustinian friar Gregor Johann Mendel. His work on pea plants, published in 1866, what is now Mendelian inheritance. Some theories of heredity suggest in the centuries before and for several decades after Mendel›s work. The year 1900 marked the “rediscovery of Mendel” by Hugo de Vries, Carl Correns and Erich von Tschermak, and by 1915 the basic principles of Mendelian genetics had been applied to a wide variety of organisms—most notably the fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster. Led by Thomas Hunt Morgan and his fellow «drosophilists», geneticists developed the Mendelian model, which was widely accepted by 1925. Alongside experimental work, mathematicians developed the statistical framework of population genetics, bringing genetic explanations into the study of evolution.
With the basic patterns of genetic inheritance established, many biologists turned to investigations of the physical nature of the gene. In the 1940s and early 1950s, experiments pointed to DNA as the portion of chromosomes (and perhaps other nucleoproteins) that held genes. A focus on new model organisms such as viruses and bacteria, along with the discovery of the double helical structure of DNA in 1953, marked the transition to the era of molecular genetics.
In the following years, chemists developed techniques for sequencing both nucleic acids and proteins, while others worked out the relationship between the two forms of biological molecules: the genetic code. The regulation of gene expression became a central issue in the 1960s; by the 1970s gene expression could be controlled and manipulated through genetic engineering. In the last decades of the 20th century, many biologists focused on large-scale genetics projects, sequencing entire genomes.
Pre Mendelian Ideas on Heredity
Diagram of Charles Darwin’s pangenesis theory. Every part of the body emits tiny particles, gemmules, which migrate to the gonads and contribute to the fertilised egg and so to the next generation. The theory implied that changes to the body during an organism’s life would be inherited, as proposed in Lamarckism. Mendel’s work

(Chroma - Colour; Some - Body)
A chromosome is a thread-like self-replicating genetic structure containing organized DNA molecule package found in the nucleus of the cell. Clear and detaile decriptions of mitotic chromosomes in plants and animals were published by Strasburger in 1875 and by the German scientist Walter Flemming in 1879- 1882.Heinrich Wilhelm Gottfried Waldeyer coined the term chromosome in 1888.
Normally Chromosomes are of two types
Autosomes - Control characters other than sex characters or carry genes for somatic characters.
Sex chromosomes (S    
Humans and most other mammals have two sex chromosomes X & Y, also called heterosome, odd chromosome, or idiosome. Females have two X chromosomes in diploid cells; males have an X and a Y chromosome. In birds the female (ZW) is hetero-gametic and male (ZZ) is homo-gametic.
Haploid: Haploid cells (N) have only one copy of each chromosome.
Diploid: Diploid cells (2N where N- chromosome number) have two homologous copies of each chromosome. The body cells of animals are diploid.In animals, gametes (sperm and eggs) are haploid.
Homologous Chromosomes
Diploid organisms have two copies of each chromosome (except the sex chromosomes). Both the copies are ordinarily identical in morphology, gene content and gene order and hence known as homologous chromosomes.Each pair of chromosomes made up of two homologs.
Homologous chromosome is inherited from separate parents; one homolog comes from the mother and the other comes from the father.

Cells divide and reproduce in two ways: mitosis and meiosis.
Mitosis is a process of cell division that results in two genetically identical daughter cells developing from a single parent cell.
Meiosis, on the other hand, is the division of a germ cell involving two fissions of the nucleus and giving rise to four gametes, or sex cells, each possessing half the number of chromosomes of the original cell.Mitosis is used by single-celled organisms to reproduce; it is also used for the organic growth of tissues, fibers, and membranes. Meiosis is found in sexual reproduction of organisms. The male and female sex cells (i.e., egg and sperm) are the end result of meiosis; they combine to create new, genetically different offspring. 

Mendel’s 3 Laws (Segregation, Independent Assortment, Dominance).In the 1860s, an Austrian monk named Gregor Mendel introduced a new theory of inheritance based on his experimental work with pea plants.Mendel believed that heredity is the result of discrete units of inheritance, and every single unit (or gene) was independent in its actions in an individual’s genome.According to this Mendelian concept, the inheritance of a trait depended on the passingon of these units.For any given trait, an individual inherits one gene from each parent so that the individual has a pairing of two genes. We now understand the alternate forms of these units as ‘alleles’.If the two alleles that form the pair for a trait are identical, then the individual is said to be homozygous and if the two genes are different, then the individual is heterozygous for the trait.The breeding experiments of the monk in the mid-1800s laid the groundwork for the science of genetics.He studied peas plant for 7 years and published his results in 1866 which was ignored until 1900 when three separate botanists, who also were theorizing about heredity in plants, independently cited the work.In appreciation of his work he was considered as the “Father of Genetics”. A new stream of genetics was established after his name as Mendelian genetics which involves the study of heredity of both qualitative (monogenic) and quantitative (polygenic) traits and the influence of environment on their expressions.Mendelian inheritance while is a type of biological inheritance that follows the laws originally proposed by Gregor Mendel in 1865 and 1866 and re-discovered in 1900.
Mendel carried out breeding experiments in his monastery’s garden to test inheritance patterns. He selectively cross-bred common pea plants (Pisum sativum) with selected traits over several generations. After crossing two plants which differed in a single trait (tall stems vs. short stems, round peas vs. wrinkled peas, purple flowers vs. white flowers, etc), Mendel discovered that the next generation, the “F1” (first filial generation), was comprised entirely of individuals exhibiting only one of the traits. However, when this generation was interbred, its offspring, the “F2” (second filial generation), showed a 3:1 ratio- three individuals had the same trait as one parent and one individual had the other parent’s trait.

Some traits are carried on the sex chromosomes, X and Y. Most traits carried are present on only the X-chromosome. The Y-chromosome is smaller, and so, very few genes are located on this chromosome. Sex traits can be categorized into three types of inheritance:
Sex limited,
Sex-linked, and
Sex-influenced.
Sex-limited traits are traits that are visible only within one sex. For instance, barred colouring in chickens normally is visible only in the roosters. Sex-linked traits would be considered traits like sickle cell anemia and colour blindness. They are said to be linked because more males (XY) develop these traits than females (XX). This is because the females have a second X gene to counteract the recessive trait. Thus, the trait is more likely to be visible in the male.
Sex Influenced Inheritance
The condition in which the same gene acts as dominant in one sex and recessive in other sex is called as sex influenced dominance. That is, the sex influences the gene either to be dominant or recessive. The sex influenced genes are present in autosomes. This differential behaviour of the gene is due to female and male sex hormones. For example, in human being baldness is due to sex influenced gene. This trait is dominant in men and recessive in women. A man is bald in homozygous recessive as well on heterozygous condition for baldness. Whereas women exhibit baldness only in homozygous recessive condition for baldness and heterozygous condition for baldness in female sex produce normal phenotype. HN, HN -Normal female and normal male

Mutation
Definition: “Mutation is the change in our DNA base pair sequence due to various environmental factors such as UV light, or mistakes during DNA replication.”
What Are Mutations?
The DNA sequence is specific to each organism. It can sometimes undergo changes in its base-pairs sequence. It is termed as a mutation. A mutation may lead to changes in proteins translated by the DNA. Usually, the cells can recognize any damage caused by mutation and repair it before it becomes permanent.
A mutation is a sudden, heritable modification in an organism’s traits. The term “mutant” refers to a person who exhibits these heritable alterations. Mutations usually produce recessive genes.

Introduction
• Cytogenetics is essentially a branch of genetics, but is also a part of cell biology/ cytology (a subdivision of human anatomy), that is concerned with how the chromosomes relate to cell behavior, particularly to their behaviour during mitosis and meiosis. Techniques used include karyotyping analysis of G-band chromosomes, as well as molecular cytogenetics such as fluorescent in situ hybridization (CGH). Cytogenetic approaches to studying chromosomes and their relationship to human disease have improved greatly over the past several decades.
As a mature enterprise, cytogenetics now inform genomics, disease and cancer genetics, chromosomes evolution and the relationship of nuclear structure to function. Cytogenetics involves testing samples of tissue, blood or bone marrow in a laboratory to look for changes in chromosomes including broken, missing, rearranged or extra chromosome. Cytogenetics may used to help diagnose a disease or condition, plan treatment or find out how well treatment is working.
Chromosomes
Chromosomes are the rod shaped; dark-stained bodies seen during metaphase stage of mitosis. The chromosomes are the nuclear components of special organization, individuality and function. They are capable of self-reproduction and play a vital role in heredity, mutation, variation and evolutionary development of the species. Chromosomes are thread-like structure located inside the nucleus. Each chromosome is made up of DNA tightly coiled many times around proteins called histones that support its structure. The number of chromosomes is constant for a particular species. Therefore, these are of great importance in the determination of the phylogeny and taxonomy of the species. The number of chromosomes varies from species to species but the number remains constant in a species. But sometime, due to certain accidents or irregularities at the time of cell division, crossing over or fertilization some alteration in morphology and number of chromosomes takes place. Humans have 23 pairs of chromosomes-22 pairs of numbered chromosomes, called autosomes, and one pair of sex chromosome, X and Y. Each parent contributes one chromosome to each pair so that offspring get half of their chromosomes from mother and half from their father.

DNA is the master molecule which carries the genetic information from one generation to the other. Study of Molecular Genetics accelerated since April 25th, 1953 when James Watson and Francis Crick proposed the structure of DNA which was published in Journal called ‘Nature’. Molecular Genetics deals with the flow of genetic information and its regulation. In simple terms it can be defined as the field of biology which studies the structure and function of genes at molecular level.
Scope of Molecular Genetics
Development of techniques like nucleic acid hybridisation, cloning, sequencing etc. brought a revolutionary change in Molecular Genetics. It is of major interest to the students of biology and medicine. Though it has a lot of significance in many fields, we’ll confine ourselves to the applications of molecular genetics to the mankind. They are as follows:
i) Diagnosis of infectious diseases: Normally microorganisms are detected in the laboratory using biochemical methods. In case of molecular techniques, microorganisms are detected by using probes (short DNA or RNA sequence) which are complementary to a part of genome of the microbe. The advantage of using molecular methods is:
• Identification of pathogen is done within a short time;
• No need to cultivate the microbes;
• Latent infections can also be identified when no antibody is formed; and
• The technique can be used even when the microorganism cannot be cultured.
ii) Diagnosis of genetic diseases : Before the advent of the above techniques, counselors used to give risk estimate like one fourth risk of getting the disease, if the parents are heterozygous for an autosomal trait. But now by directly testing for the mutation, they are able to confirm the presence or absence of mutation in the fetus. It is of immense help in prenatal diagnosis.

The genetic blueprint contained in the nucleotide sequence can determine the phenotype of an individual. The hereditary units, which are transmitted from one generation to the next generation are called genes. A gene is a fundamental biological unit like atom which is the fundamental physical unit.
Mendel was the first scientist who proposed genes as particulate units and called them hereditary elements or factors. But the concept of gene has undergone a considerable change since Mendel’s time.
Modern Concept of Gene
A gene can be described as a polynucleotide chain, which is a segment of DNA. It is a functional unit controlling a particular trait such as eye colour. Beadle and Tatum concluded by various experiments that gene is a segment of DNA that codes for one enzyme. They proposed one gene-one enzyme hypothesis. But as some genes code for proteins that are not enzymes, the definition of gene was changed to one gene-one protein hypothesis.
Protein Hypothesis
The concept of gene has undergone further changes as the new facts came to light. Since proteins are polypeptide chains of amino acids translated by mRNA, gene was defined as one gene-one polypeptide relationship.
Some proteins have two or more different kinds of polypeptide chains, each with a different amino acid sequence. They are products of different genes. For example, hemoglobin has two kinds of chains a andß chains, which differ in amino acid sequence and length. They are encoded by different genes. Thus, gene is defined as one gene- one polypeptide relationship.

1. Introduction
Molecular techniques are laboratory methods used to study and manipulate DNA, RNA, and proteins. These techniques are crucial for analyzing and understanding the molecular basis of biological processes and have applications in various fields like medicine, agriculture, and forensics.
2. Molecular Marker Analysis
Molecular markers can be expressed as a DNA sequence or gene expression product that represents differences in genomic level in relation to a gene or a property. Molecular markers are markers that can be used to monitor differences at the DNA level and for a gene that is being investigated. DNA markers are also DNA regions in which polymorphism in individuals within a species can be determined.
Molecular markers are nontissue-specific DNA regions that are reliable, repeatable, standardizable, capable of identifying multiple regions in the genome, capable of identifying more than one region in the genome, independent of environmental conditions, dominant and codominant.
Molecular markers are classified as dominant and codominant markers. Heterozygous individuals cannot be distinguished from homozygous dominant individuals, since dominant markers are not suitable for identification of heterozygous individuals when related to dominance between alleles is dominated by dominant markers. Thus, three different individuals (AA, AA and AA) can be distinguished for any marker at any point.
The use of molecular marker systems based on this meta-analysis has become more prevalent in genetic studies conducted by the discovery of the polymerase chain reaction (PCR). The rapid development of technology and the accompanying needs, the facilities of the laboratories where the applications will occur, the biological properties of the species and the abundance of markers in the genome have contributed to the development of DNA markers [5]. Restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP), randomly amplified polymorphic DNA markers (RAPD), amplified fragment length polymorphism (AFLP), sequence labeled sequences (STS), microsatellites (SSR), cleaved polymorphic sequence (CAPS), single strand such as complementary polymorphism (SSCP), amplicon length polymorphism (ALP), interspecific sequence repeat polymorphism (ISSR),