eChapters

Environment: Environment means “surrounding”. First definition of environment was given by “Ernst Haeckel”. According to this - The relation between all organic and inorganic atmosphere of any animal is called environment.

1. …. . involves rearing of silkworms.

 a) Lac culture b) Sericulture  

 c) Apiculture d) Pisciculture

 2. ‘Silk Samagra’ scheme was launched by …. . .

 a) Government of Karnataka b) Government of Tamil Nadu  

 c) Government of Punjab  d) Government of India

 3. Match the pairs

 a) Mulberry silkworm          1. Antheraea paphia

 b) Tasar silkworm                  2.  Attacus ricinii

 c) Muga silkworm                 3.  Antheraea pernyi

 d) Eri silkworm                        4.  Attacus altas

 e) Oak silkworm                     5.  Bombyx mori

 f) Giant silkworm                  6.  Antheraea assama

 a) a=5, b=2,c=3,d=4,e=1, f=6 b) a=5, b=1, c=6, d=2, e=3, f=4

 c) a=2, b=4, c=3, d=1, e=6, f=5 d) a=2, b=3, c=2, d=1, e=4, f=6

 4. ‘Silk Samagra’ scheme was launched for period of …. . .

 a) 2017-2020 b) 2016-2019 

 c) 2014-2017 d) 2021-2024

Hypothesis testing provides a statistical framework for making inferences about populations from sample observations obtained through random experiments. This chapter introduces the scientific logic underlying statistical hypotheses and explains the formulation of null and alternative hypotheses. It discusses one-tailed and two-tailed tests, levels of significance, Type I and Type II errors, sampling distributions, test statistics, critical regions, p-values, and decision-making. The chapter also explains statistical significance and the interpretation of test results. Applications of Student’s t-test and related procedures are illustrated through forestry and biological examples, enabling researchers to determine whether observed differences between means can reasonably be attributed to treatments rather than random sampling variation.

The problem of haphazard and chaotic development in Allahabad can be traced to the existence of Nazul Lease. The major development of the city under the colonial rule started around 1868, with the inception of the Civil Station, the status of the British inhabitants was further strengthened by the creation of Lease status, the land was basically leased out for a certain specified time period. There were four types of Leases

Berseem is very important rabi season legume fodder and popularly know as the “King” of fodder crops.

Berseem (Trifolium alexandrinum L.)

Berseem, also called Egyptian clover, is an important winter forage.

Family : Leguminaceae

Importance

• It is quite nutritive and succulent highly pelatible. It has 20% crude protein and 70% dry matter digestibility
• Forage is also rich in calcium and phosphorus.
• Berseem cultivation changes chemical characters of soil

Introduction

Libraries are a center of information for the academic community of the universities in Kerala. It acts as a gateway to global knowledge. Libraries provide seamless access to the information that supports teaching, learning research, and extension. It also ensures fair access to knowledge in the academic community. The libraries fulfill the objectives of their parent organization. It caters to the educational needs of students, researchers, and faculty/Scientists of the universities for study, research, teaching, and extension activities.

 

Bivalve and mollusc hatchery techniques are fundamental to modern aquaculture, offering controlled environments to induce spawning, facilitate larval development, and ensure juvenile growth. These hatcheries serve as the cornerstone for sustainable mollusc farming by supplying consistent and high-quality seed stock. Key procedures in these facilities include broodstock conditioning, induced spawning, larval rearing, and juvenile cultivation, all tailored to maximize reproductive success and survival rates. Molluscs, particularly bivalves such as oysters, clams, mussels, and scallops, play a vital role in global aquaculture. Their cultivation is expanding rapidly due to their ecological services, including water filtration and habitat formation, alongside their high nutritional value and economic returns. Hatchery-based production enhances seed availability and reliability, addressing the variability of natural seed sources and supporting the expansion of commercial farming. Mollusc hatcheries are specialized facilities engineered to regulate and maintain optimal conditions for reproduction, larval development, and seed production. These operations are built upon scientific principles encompassing infrastructure design, water quality management, breeding protocols, and biosecurity measures. Induced spawning techniques, often triggered through temperature shocks or chemical cues, initiate gamete release under controlled settings. Larval rearing involves maintaining precise environmental parameters— temperature, salinity, and food availability—to support the delicate early developmental stages. Following metamorphosis, juveniles are transferred to nursery systems where they continue to grow until they are ready for transfer to grow-out sites. A distinguishing anatomical feature of bivalves is their two-valved shell, which may be symmetrical or asymmetrical and may fully or partially enclose the soft body. These shells are primarily composed of calcium carbonate and comprise three layers: the nacreous inner layer, the prismatic middle layer, and the outer

8.1    Climatic Conditions
    
8.2    Water
    
8.3    Spacing
    
8.4    Crop Nutrition
    
8.5    Pests and Diseases
    
8.6    Bunch Covering
    
8.7    Maturity and Maturity Indices
    
8.8    Maturity vs Shelf life and Quality
    
8.9    Pre-Harvest Sprays
    
8.10    Harvesting

Introduction

Mango (Mangifera indica Linn.) is one of the most nutritious tropical fruits, native to Southern Asia and especially Eastern India. Mango belongs to Anacardiaceae family and it was disseminated all over the world in the beginning of sixteenth century, and there are currently around thousand known varieties of mango. It is the dominant tropical fruit variety produced worldwide, followed by pineapple, papaya and avocado, all of which are considered as major tropical fruits. Global production of mango in 2015-16 was estimated to be about 44 million tons, accounting for nearly 50% of world tropical fruit production.

Mango is the most important fruit of India and is known as “King of fruits”. Mango is cultivated in 2,312 thousand ha and the production is around 15.03 million tons, contributing 40.48% of the total world production. Main mango producing states in India are Uttar Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Bihar, Gujarat and Tamil Nadu. Total export of mangoes from India is 59.22 thousand tons, valuing Rs. 162.92 crores during 2015-16. India exports mango to over 40 countries worldwide. Major importing countries during 2015-16 were UAE, Bangladesh, UK, Saudi Arabia, Kuwait and Bahrain. Important mango varieties are Dashehari, Langra, Mallika, Amrapali, Bombay Green, Banganapalli, Totapuri, Neelam etc.

Clouds are visible mass of little drops of water or frozen crystals suspended in the atmosphere above the surface of the earth. The World Meteorological Organisation defined cloud as a visible aggregate of minute particles of water or ice or both, in the free air. This aggregate may include larger particles of water or ice and particles such as those present in fumes, smoke or dust.

Clouds are the most important form of suspended water droplets caused by condensation. The typical size of these water droplets and ice crystals range from less than 1 μm to 50 μm. When surrounded by billions of other droplets or crystals, they become visible as clouds. In the atmosphere sufficient moisture is required to allow condensation to take place. Then, moisture needs a suitable surface upon which it can condense. In free air, condensation begins on hygroscopic nuclei such as aerosols. These are microscopic particles and include dust, smoke, salts and chemical compounds. Nuclei range in size from 0.001 μm radius to over 10 μm. On an average, oceanic air contains one million condensation nuclei per litre and land air holds some 5 or 6 millions. On hygroscopic particles such as sea salts, condensation can begin before the air is saturated. Supersaturation in clouds rarely exceeds one per cent. On an average, clouds contain only four per cent of the total water in the atmosphere at any one time. Almost all clouds exist in the troposphere, although the tops of some severe thunderstorms occasionally extend to the stratosphere. Clouds move along with the wind and remain stationary in calm winds. They grow vertically and horizontally, depending on the temperature of the cloud and its ambient temperature. They may dissipate or precipitate. Under favourable atmospheric conditions, they burst and fall as rain.

This chapter presents the analysis and interpretation of data gathered through a structured questionnaire to conduct the current study. Data analysis and interpretation of data is the most significant part of the research report. It contains a detailed analysis of major results about the information for arriving at a valid conclusion. It helps to interpret the results of the study in a proper perspective. Based on the objectives and hypotheses formulated, the data was collected through a questionnaire. Likert’s scale was used to assess the opinions of the respondents. 

Introduction

As a new decade begins, the effects of climate change are being felt all around the world. Storms, floods, droughts, and wildfires are examples of events that may already be linked to climate change and that are expected to occur more frequently and intensely as well as the destruction they inflict virtually every day. The state of the world’s climate is a serious issue that requires attention. In order to create a future that is more environmentally friendly, addressing this issue is urgently required, and everyone must take this into consideration as their shared goal. Since technology is increasingly being seen as a part of the outcome.

To this end, the strengthening of national innovation systems and ensuring that people have access to effective IPPI management programmes need to be stepped up with a view to improving research and development in technologies, products and services which are needed for transformation into a more environmentally sustainable future. This crisis can’t be solved, unless there is a breakthrough technology that will make the goals achievable. This is why innovation in the field of “green” technologies will be needed and intellectual property rights will play an important role. Intellectual property rights may ensure that technological progress can be sold to allow for the continuation of research and development investment but they could also cause problems and constraints. The impact and opportunities that “Green IP” can have are therefore considerable. Regardless of their distinctions, “Green IP” will have an impact on companies from different industries, sectors, and locations. The consumer goods sector needs to improve how they go about changing the specifications for designing products that can be easily recycled and repaired.

Introduction

Nucleic acids, primarily DNA and RNA, are essential for the storage and expression of genetic information. Under physiological conditions, the amino and oxo tautomers of purines and pyrimidines predominate. Adenine a., guanine (G), cytosine c., thymine (T), and uracil (U) are the main building blocks of nucleic acids. Other building blocks include 5-methylcytosine, 5-hydroxymethylcytosine, pseudouridine, and N-methylated heterocycles. A -glycosidic bond connects D-ribose or 2-deoxy-D-ribose to the N-1 of a pyrimidine or the N-9 of a purine, with the syn conformers being the most common.

Nucleotides are the monomeric units of nucleic acids that contain a phosphate group attached to the sugar’s 3’ or 5’ hydroxyl. Extra phosphate groups form nucleoside diphosphates and triphosphates. These have high group transfer potential and help make covalent bonds. Cyclic phosphodiesters cAMP and cGMP act as second messengers. 3′ 5′ phosphodiester bonds link nucleotides to form polynucleotides, which have a directional 5′ and 3′ end. Four bases—A, G, C, and T—compose DNA, and hydrogen bonds (A to T, G to C) hold them together to form a double helix. Human DNA consists of approximately 3 billion base pairs organized into 23 chromosomes, encoding around 25,000 protein-coding genes and various non-coding RNAs (ncRNAs).

Tactile: Referring to the sense of touch.

Taenidium (pl. taenidia): The spiral thickening of the tracheal wall that prevents collapse; helical fold in the cuticular lining of tracheae and tracheoles (Fig. 230); cuticular ridges that support the walls of tracheae; a spiral or circular thickening of the inner surface of the tracheae.

Fruit is a structure which arises from an ovary or fusion of several ovaries after fertilization and may or may not carry associated floral parts. Fruit formation is an evolutionary mechanism designed to support and dispersal of seed by various agencies.With few exceptions e.g. banana, it is necessary for the flowers to be fertilized to set fruit. Fruit set succeeds the process which involves fusion of male and female gametes inside the ovary and is called fertilization. Fruit setting has long been remained a major problem as is evident from the old Greek literature and wall paintings where male panicles of date palm were being rubbed against the female flowers to get good fruit set.Lack of pollination with compatible source leads to the flowers drop except the flowers which set parthenocarpically. Further if fertilization is affected even then the flower drop and this decision depends upon the internal hormonal levels of the plant and prevailing climatic conditions.On the basis of pollination requirement fruit plants can be autogamous, allogamous or geitonogamous. In case of fruit plants like grape, peach where pollen produced by the same flower affect the fertilization are called autogamous and fruits like apple, kiwi, pistachio necessarily require pollen produced on some other plant or cultivar which are compatible can affect fertilization are called allogamous. Another condition exists where pollen grains from the same plant affect fertilization in flower at different part of the plant e.g. Walnut, pecan nut and is called geitonogamy. Similarly on the basis of compatibility between pollen and stigma, plants can be self unfruitfull, partially self fruitfull and self fruitfull.Self fruitfulness indicates that fruit species or cultivars produce abundant viable pollen grains whose shedding coincides with the receptivity of stigma, pollination is effective and there are no pre and post fertilization barriers. However, partial self fruitfulness and self un-fruitfulness exhibits number of causes. In case of fully self fruitfull types, a solid block of a single cultivar can be raised without making any provision for cross pollination, however it has been reported that provision of cross pollination in autoganmous crops increases the fruit-set. In case of self unfruitful and partially self unfruitful types, provision of cross pollination is necessary to get the fruits. Proper selection of the cultivars is therefore important from the point of fruit yield for which besides overlapping of blossoming season over long periods, the time of maturity, productiveness, market values etc. are of importance. Pollenizer must be a heavy pollen producer to ensure better chances of cross fertilization. Although pollenizers are desirable, their number must be restricted so that these do not become uneconomical because the pollenizer trees occupy space, consume nutrition and take away attention of the fruit grower without any return in yield, which would have otherwise been diverted to the trees capable of bearing fruits. Numerous environmental, edaphic, plant characters affect the fruit set and are discussed as under:

Introduction

India is one of the agriculturally important countries in the world and has strong net-work of agriculture education, research and extension. As per the historical record India is committed to thrive and excel independently. During 1965–66, India imported food grains from the US under PL-480 scheme, and the situation was “ship-to-mouth”. This condition was also exacerbated with the growing population which made India to increase its food production at most priority with commitment. With the introduction of high yielding semi dwarf varieties of rice from IRRI, The Philippines and wheat from Mexico which combined with right policies of government to provide essential inputs and market facilities, credit etc. revolutionized the Indian agriculture. In addition to these innovative ideas and policies the food production reached to the level of self-sufficiency until today. For instance the food production during 1950-51 was 54 million tonnes and reached to 285 million tonnes during 2018-19. After the fourth five year plan, India made its stand of self-sufficiency even affected by any year of worst drought. Later, the focus had been given on agricultural research and education in the country for sustaining self-sufficiency in agriculture sector at all times of change of conditions within the country and also globally. Although more than 65 per cent of rural population is depend on agriculture sector, the average monthly income is about Rs. 6500. It reveals that under employment and large population in India depend on agriculture which is unsustainable (Rena, 2003). Therefore, it is needed to books the rural economy, create new infrastructure and other innovations in this sector. India has been emphasizing for innovative techniques. The main advantage for India is the richest natural resources and need only planning and execution on innovation front.

Introduction

In a historic landmark, Genentech, a young Californian Company pioneering in gene splicing (which includes recDNA technology, genetic engineering, gene transplantation, gene cloning), saw its stock price skyrocket form $35 to a staggering $89 within just 20 minutes of the New York Stock Exchange’s opening bell on October 15, 1980. This was marked as the fastest stock price growth ever witnessed on that exchange. The company’s success was attributed to the ground-breaking work it had been involved in producing human insulin through genetic engineering that offered a revolutionary alternative for diabetics allergic to the then traditional insulin of porcine origin. Genentech’s pioneering work in gene splicing has its roots in the early 1970s. In 1972, Stanley Cohen and Herbert Boyer were credited with creating the first recombinant DNA molecule. Their experiments demonstrated the ability to create recombinant DNA molecules that could be introduced into bacteria like E? coli, offering a foundation for future advancements in genetic engineering.

Abstract 

Rainfed agriculture plays and will continue to play a dominant role in providing food and livestock for an increasing world population. Rainfed agriculture practiced on 80% of the world’ agriculture land area and generates about 70% of the world’s staple food including most of the food in poor communities in developing and least favoured areas. The most recent estimates have put global rainfed croplands at 1.75 billion ha (Bha) at the end of the last millennium, or about 5.5 times the irrigated area in the world . India ranks 1st among the countries that practice rainfed agriculture both in terms of extent 86 (mha) & value production. Agriculture water management deals with the administration of a key input to agricultural production & offers to hope that land and water use will be intensified .Scarcity of water resources and growing ofm competition for water many sectors reduces its availability for irrigation. Effective management of water for crop production in water scare area requires efficient approaches for increasing crop productivity and drought tolerance by genetic improvement and physiological regulation may be the means to achieve efficient & effective use of water. A single approaches would not be able to tackle the forthcoming challenge of producing more food and measures with engineering solutions (water saving ,irrigation method, deficit irrigation, proper deficit sequencing, modernization of irrigation system etc) and agronomic & soil manipulation (seed priming\ seedling age manipulation, direct or wet seeded rice. 

There is sufficient support to view that foreign trade plays has a vital role in the economic development of a country. Its contribution to the growth of National Income can be quite substantial. If a country is pulled into world trade, then the country can and should maximize its real income by specializing along lines of comparative advantage. The volume and composition of foreign trade have a profound influence on the character and the extent of development of a country. From the point of view of economic development, both import and export are important. It is through import that a country could obtain plant, machinery and equipment, components, raw materials, technical know-how, etc., which are indispensable for accelerating economic development.

India’s share in world exports was 0.54 per cent in 1970s, which has risen to 0.81 per cent in 2000s and exports has grown 700 times and imports more than thousand times during the course of economic development. It is clearly observed from Table 16.1 that import is greater than export. The rate of growth of export between 2001-02 and 2007-08 was 90 per cent, whereas import growth rate was 150 per cent in the corresponding period.

1. Particulate and duplicate nature of heredity factors or element was first demonstrated by
a) Bateson 
b) Mendel
c) Morgan 
d) Punnett
2. The particular site or position of a gene in a chromosome is known as
a) Genotype 
b) Phenotype
c) Locus 
d) Allele
3. Linkage group in swamp buffalo
a) 25 
b) 30
c) 24 
d) 26