eChapters

The use of sampling in making decisions about an aggregate (or population) is possibly as old as civilization itself. Sampling is first broadly classified into two categories known as subjective and objective. Any type of sampling which depends upon the personal judgement or discretion of the sampler himself, is called subjective sampling. But the sampling method which is governed by a sampling rule or is independent of the sampler’s own judgement is known as objective sampling. The main difficulty with subjective sampling is that the sampler is ignorant of the degree of representativeness of his sample or the accuracy of the final estimates of the population values obtained.

Objective sampling is further subdivided as non-probabilistic, probabilistic and mixed. In non-probabilistic objective sampling, there is a fixed sampling rule but there is no selection probability attached to the sampling unit e.g. selection of every 10th individual from a list, starting with the first, or selecting every 10th line in a paddy field. If however, the selection of the first individual is made in such a manner that each of the first 10 gets an equal chance of being selected, it becomes a case of mixed sampling, partly probabilistic and partly non-probabilistic). On the other hand, if for each individual unit there is a definite pre-assigned probability of being selected, the sampling is said to be probabilistic sampling.

1.1 Introduction

The use of sampling in making decisions about an aggregate (or population) is possibly as old as civilization itself. Sampling is first broadly classified into two categories known as subjective and objective. Any type of sampling which depends upon the personal judgement or discretion of the sampler himself, is called subjective sampling. But the sampling method which is governed by a sampling rule or is independent of the sampler’s own judgement is known as objective sampling. The main difficulty with subjective sampling is that the sampler is ignorant of the degree of representativeness of his sample or the accuracy of the final estimates of the population values obtained.

Abstract

Powdery mildew infected leaves of apple hyperparasitized by Ampelomyces quisqualis were collected from field and examined for the presence of the dark brown pycnidia of  hyperparasite. The hyperparasite was isolated on potato dextrose agar medium by standard isolation technique. The morphological characters of the hyperparasite such as size and shape of pycnidia and pycnidiospores were studied. Six systemic fungicides were evaluated for their compatibility with A. quisqualis under in vitro conditions. Dinocap was least inhibitory giving 65.56 per cent growth inhibition of A. quisqualis followed by mancozeb (66.67%). Effect of these fungicides was also seen on conidial germination and germ tube length of A. quisqualis. Maximum conidial germination and germ tube length was observed in mancozeb followed by benomyl and dinocap.

Abstract

A promising strain/seedling have been identified that produces only male flowers (small and pink tinged) on the ventral side of the current season’s shoot all along its length. As many as 24 flowers per shoot were observed. The seedling continued to flower for about one month which attracts large number of honey bees. The pollen is also produced in abundance that dehisces early in the morning. Preliminary observations on the flowering behaviour and pollen studies have revealed that it can be used as a suitable polliniser for persimmon cultivars in general and Hachiya cultivar in particular.

1. Introduction

Phytochemicals are compounds present in fruits that are not required for normal functioning of the body, but have a beneficial effect on health or play an active role in amelioration of diseases. Phytonutrients have various health benefits like antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, cancer preventive, antidiabetic and antihypertensive. The pigments of the fruits have many therapeutic benefits including vasoprotective and anti-inflammatory properties, antiproliferative, chemo protective and anti-neoplastic properties, reversing age related deficits (Joseph et al.,1999) and useful in controlling oxidative stress during pregnancies complicated by intrauterine growth retardation (Pawlowicz et al.,2000). Cocculus hirsutus Linn. is a climber and widely distributed in tropical and subtropical climates. This plant is commonly called as kattu kodi in Tamil. It belongs to the family Menispermaceae. The fruit is a drupe which is size of small pea with red purple endocarp (Fig.1a and Fig.1b). The plant is used in treatment of gonorrhea, spermatonorrhea, Urinary troubles, diarrhea and hyperglycemia (Kirtikar and Basu, 2002). The leaves of the plant have been evaluated for anti hyperglycemic (Badole et al., 2006); antibacterial (Panda et al., 2007); diuretic and laxative (Ganapaty et al., 2002). Several isoquinoline alkaloids are present in leaves and roots; the important ones cohirsine, cohirsinine, cohirsitinine, hirsutine and jamtine (Viqaruddin et al., 1987; 1991; 1992; 1993). Since no detail scientific approach has been made to study phytochemicals of cocculus hirsutus fruit. So in the present investigation preliminary

Abstract

Ten GPS stations have been set up in campaign mode in North Bengal in the Himalayan foothills and frontal zone, of which 7 have been reoccupied. Data from these 7 GPS stations over the period December, 2005 – January, 2007 have been processed using GAMIT/GLOBK suite of software and the velocities of these stations have been estimated. Since the data obtained so far cover a span of one year only, the conclusions derived from them are to be considered as preliminary. The stations are found to be moving at the rate of ~ 40-55 mm/yr in ITRF05 reference frame towards NNE. The baseline between LHAS (Lhasa) and IISC (Bangalore) is estimated to be shortened by ~10.2 mm over the period of our measurement. The southernmost station in our study, NBUV, at Siliguri is more or less collinear with LHAS-IISC baseline. The shortening of NBUV-IISC line is estimated to be ~ 3.8 mm over this period and that of NBUV-LHAS line is ~ 6.4 mm for the same period. These GPS stations were set up across the parallel set of previously marked fault scarps named Matiali (MT), Chalsa (CL) and Baradighi (BD) faults in North Bengal between longitudes 88⁰ E and 89⁰ E. The results from the GPS measurements show that stations to the south of the BD fault are moving at a faster rate than those to the north of MT fault. The baseline between stations AMBK (Ambiok) and NBUV has shortened by ~3 mm over the period of our observation. These two are the northernmost and southernmost stations respectively with respect to the three E-W running parallel faults and thus the shortening of baseline AMBK-NBUV is due to movements on the set of three faults taken together. A N-S to NNE-SSW running line of discontinuity between 88.5⁰ E and 89⁰ E longitudes separates the velocity vectors of the set of stations SAMS, JITI, PMSM, BRDH to the east of the line and the set of stations NBUV, BGKT, AMBK to the west. The line of demarcation of the two blocks containing the two sets of stations appears to coincide with the Gish transverse zone (GTZ).

Plant Growth Regulator (PGR) are diverse group of organic compound other than nutrients, produced artificially or by plants which in low concentrations promote, inhibit or modify the physiological process in plant. Among the PGRs produced by plants are auxins (indole-3-acetic acid and its derivatives), gibberellins, cytokinins, abscisic acid and ethylene.

Application of certain plant growth regulators promotes the process of seed germination, and development of roots in cuttings and layers. Various growth regulators have been used with striking success. Of these auxins such as indole3-acetic acid (IAA), indolebutyric acid (IBA) and naphthalene acetic acid (NAA) have the greatest effect on root formation in cuttings and layers. These chemicals speed up the healing of the wound, induce more roots and their development. They are now used universally in the propagation of many fruit plants. The growth regulators are effective in minute concentration and are usually applied in dilute solutions and dust formulations or rarely in grease bases such as lanolin. Plant growth regulators are generally calculated in the form of parts per million (ppm) or microgram per gram (mg/g).

Introduction

The nurseryman needs some records if he is going to plan for remunerative returns and establish himself as a reputable business. Ideally, a nursery planner should be able to estimate how long it takes to lift saplings or how much seed is required, or how many cuttings he can accommodate in a glasshouse, as well as how much scion wood is required for grafting a particular plot. In nurseries, specific registers must be maintained to keep track of day-to-day activities, such as pedigrees and operations. In case of large nurseries, these records are required by law to satisfy inspection authorities, calculate taxes, detect theft, or discourage it.

Regardless of the subject or content, having a lesson plan prepares teachers for class by providing detailed guidelines for the session. A lesson plan need not be lengthy or complex; it should simply outline what is being taught, the method of presentation, and the objectives and goals for student achievement.

Why Lesson Plans Are Important

• Preparation and Effectiveness: Preparing lessons in advance is crucial for implementing effective teaching strategies. Without a lesson plan, classes can become unproductive or confusing for both students and teachers. Proper preparation ensures that lessons are structured and focused.

• Classroom Management: Lesson planning is vital for classroom management. Developing a lesson plan based on learning objectives allows for flexibility in teaching methods and classroom management techniques. Different delivery approaches are needed for hybrid or online classes compared to traditional classes, and a well-prepared plan helps maintain focus and effectiveness regardless of the learning environment.

• Student Success: Well-structured lessons significantly benefit students, who are more likely to engage and show interest in the material. Lesson plans, guided by curriculum objectives, help teachers create valuable educational experiences, thereby increasing the likelihood of student success.

Cordial is a sparkling, clear, sweetened fruit juice beverage from which pulp/ fibrous material has been removed completely. It contains at least 25% fruit juice, 30% total soluble solids (TSS), 1.5% acid and 350 ppm sulphur dioxide. Lemon and lime are the most suitable fruits for making cordial.
Recipe: The recipe for the preparation of cordial as a general guideline is as under:
Extract the juice from lime or lemon as in squash and store in glass bottles after adding potassium metabisulphite @ 1.0 g/kg of the juice. Allow the juice to settle for a month. Decant the clear juice without disturbing sediments and strain it through a fine muslin cloth. Prepare syrup by mixing sugar with water, boil, strain and allow to cool. On cooling, mix juice in syrup and strain the cordial through muslin cloth if necessary. Add KMS and fill into bottles. Stor in a cool and dry place.

Jam: Jam is a product made by boiling fruit pulp with sufficient sugar to a reasonably thick consistency. Jam is mainly prepared by apple, pear, sapota, apricot, peach, papaya, karonda etc. It can be prepared from one kind of fruits or from two or more kind of fruits. In general jam contains 0.5-0.6% acid and invert sugar should not be more than 40%.

Fruit nectar is a type of fruit beverage that contains not less than 20% fruit juice or pulp, not less than 15o B total soluble solids and acidity ranging between
0.3-0.5 % but not exceeding 1.5%/. For orange and pineapple nectar, the fruit juice shall not be less than 40%. The product is preserved by heat processing/ thermal processing, as such no chemical preservative is permitted in nectars. Unlike squashes, fruit nectar is served chilled as such without any dilution.
Mango, guava, pineapple, papaya, jamun etc., are the most suitable fruits for making nectar.
Recipe: As a general guideline, the following recipe is used for the preparation of fruit nectar:
Procedure
i. Select fully mature and ripe fruit and extract pulp as discussed under fruit pulp making but do not add any chemical preservative.

Fruit pulps are semi-finished products that are used for manufacturing finished value-added products like jam, ready-to-serve beverages, squash, appetizers etc. According to Food Laws, pulp refers to an unfermented but fermentable product, pulpy, turbid or clear, obtained by a mechanical process from sound ripe fruits/vegetables. These are preserved either by heat processing or by using chemical preservatives. The maximum preservative permitted under Indian Food Laws is 1000 ppm sulphur dioxide added in the form of potassium metabisulphite.
Mango, guava, apple, pineapple, papaya, bael, guava, peach, plum, apricot etc., are the most suitable fruits for making pulp for use in finished product preparation.
Procedure
i. Select fully mature and ripe fruit like mango, guava, apple, peach, apricot, kiwi, etc., and wash thoroughly.

Jam is prepared by boiling the fruit pulp with a sufficient quantity of sugar to a thick consistency, firm enough to hold fruit tissues in position. For the preparation of jam, not less than 45 parts of fruits are used for every 55 parts of sugar. The jam prepared by using two or more fruit pulps is called mixed fruit jam. Apple jam, apricot jam, mango jam, guava jam, pineapple jam, and mixed fruit jam prepared by using the pulp of two or more fruits are quite common. According to Food Safety & Standards Regulations,2011 the minimum TSS in the Jam shall not be less than 65%(w/w). Earlier the minimum limit was 68% (w/w)
Raw material, ingredients and utensils required
1. Fruits like mangoes, guava, apples, apricots, plum, peaches and kiwi etc singly or in combination
2. Stainless steel knives, de-corers, ladle, utensils for cooking and mixing, glass bottles (Jars), LPG or Diesel Bhatti, bucket/tub for washing, Stainless steel sieve, Steam Jacketted Kettle, Boiler (for the commercial unit) etc. 

Ready -to -Serve (RTS) drink is a type of fruit beverage that contains at least 10% fruit juice/pulp and 10o Brix total soluble solids with acidity ranging between 0.3-0.5%. The product is not diluted before serving like squash; hence it is called a ready-to-serve beverage. The product can be preserved by using 70 ppm SO2  or 120 ppm benzoic acid. Mango, orange, guava, lemon, lime, litchi, kiwi fruit, apricot, pineapple, etc., fruits are used for making RTS beverages. For lime & lemon drinks minimum level of juice content is 5% as per Indian Food Laws.
Recipe: As a general guideline, the following recipe is used for the preparation of ready-to-serve drinks:
Procedure
i. Select fully mature and ripe fruit like mango, guava, apricot, kiwi, etc., and wash thoroughly.
ii. Some fruits like mango, kiwi, pineapple, and litchi are peeled before heating. Apricots, guava, plums etc are not peeled. Place fruit after peeling in a pan/pressure cooker and boil till softening

Squash is a type of fruit beverage containing at least 25% fruit juice/pulp, not less than 40% total soluble solids (TSS), about 1-1.5% acid and not exceeding 350ppm sulphur dioxide or 600ppm sodium benzoate. Squash is diluted by adding cold/chilled water before serving (1:3).
Mango, orange, lemon, lime, litchi, guava, pineapple, jamun, plum, apricot, rhododendron petals etc., are used for making squash. Potassium metabisulphite (KMS) is generally used as a preservative, whereas sodium benzoate is used as a preservative in squash made from coloured fruits like plum, jamun, phalsa and rhododendron petals.
Recipe: A generalized recipe for the preparation of squashes from different
fruits as a general guideline is as under:

Preparation and processing of the ice cream mix determine the functionality, safety, and consistency of the final product. This chapter describes the complete mix-processing sequence, beginning with ingredient measurement and blending and continuing through pasteurization, homogenization, cooling, and aging. It explains the purpose of each operation and its effect on proteins, fat globules, stabilizers, viscosity, microbial safety, and structure. Aging is particularly important because it supports fat crystallization and hydration of proteins and stabilizers, improving whipping and texture. The chapter also discusses common processing defects, corrective actions, and practical standard operating procedures, providing an industry-oriented framework for producing consistent and high-quality ice cream mixes.

The procedure used in the preparation of samples depends on the purpose of analysis and the nature of the constituents that are to be determined.

a. Plant material (Herbage)

    1.    Separate the plant material by using sharp knife.
    2.    Remove the contaminations like soil or other material by gentle brushing. Never wash the plant material with water.
    3.    Mix corresponding plant parts from more than one plant to obtain representative sample of sufficient size for analysis.
    4.    Cut the sample immediately into small pieces and mix thoroughly. 
    5.    Weigh a portion of this sample for those analyses which are to be performed on green material. 
    6.    Dry the sample in a hot air oven at 100 ± 2ºC for storage.

Buffers

Bronsted and Lowry defined acids as substances which are able to donate protons, and bases as substances which accept protons.

In the above example, BH is an acid because it donates proton and B– is an anion liberated by the deprotonation of the acid. B– behaves like a base, so it is called conjugate base.

Acids can be classified into strong acids and weak acids.

1. Strong acids get dissociated almost completely, e.g., hydrochloric acid, sulphuric acid. This is because the conjugate bases of these acids are very weak (have less affinity for the proton).

2. Weak acids get dissociated partially, e.g., acetic acid, carbonic acid. This happens because the conjugate bases of these acids are strong (have greater affinity for proton). Since the dissociation of the weak acids is partial, the equilibrium constant for the dissociation reaction of the weak acid (BH) can be written as follows:

A. Circular letter
• Circular letter is a quick and cheap method of communication.
• It is a letter reproduced and sent to many people by the extension worker, to publicize an extension activity (like meeting, exhibits etc.) or to give information on farm and home problems.
• Circular letter could be used as a mail before organizing any campaign or extension work.
• It is sent from extension wing weekly or fortnightly to maintain regular contact with the farmers depending upon