eChapters

Abstract

Ber is an important fruit of India and South Asia. Its cultivation is gaining popular in recent years. The drupaceous fruits of ber are characterized by climacteric respiration phenomena and produce high amount of ethylene at ripening. It is very high in ascorbic acid content. Maturity and ripening is still judged by colour changes, as reliable maturity indices for particular cultivars are not fully established. Short shelf life is major problem in this fruit. Protocols for postharvest handling is not standardized, however, scattered information are available for postharvest behaviour and handling. Low temperature storage is beneficial and reduces respiration rates but simultaneously chilling injury is again hindrance in commercialization. Postharvest rot is major problem in storage. Therefore, focused research is needed to standardize the storage temperature and alleviation of chilling injury.

Abstract

The conventional methods of pathogen identification have often depended on identification of disease symptoms, isolation and culturing of the organisms, and identification by morphology and biochemical tests. The major limitations of these culture based morphological approaches, however, are the reliance on the ability of the organism to be cultured, the time consuming nature and requirement of extensive taxonomic expertise. Furthermore, diagnosis of plant diseases can be even more difficult with asymptomatically infected propagative materials such as tree grafting stocks or potato tubers. The use of molecular methods can circumvent many of these shortcomings. Accordingly, there have been significant developments in the area of molecular detection of plant pathogens in the last three decades. The polymerase chain reaction (PCR) which revolutionised molecular diagnostics and biological sciences. In the last decade the range of targets that can be diagnosed using diagnostic PCR have grown tremendously. The very flexibility and application specific variations in the basic theme of the system have allowed the development of many PCR variants adapted to wide range of applications. Furthermore, diagnostic PCR has been greatly improved by the introduction of the second generation PCR, known as the Real time PCR where closed-tube fluorescence detection and quantification during PCR amplification (in real time) is possible eliminating the need for laborious post-PCR sample processing steps which greatly reduces the risk of carryover contamination. Using Real Time PCR, it is possible not only to detect the presence or absence ofthe target pathogen, but it is also possible to quantify the amount present in the sample allowing the quantitative assessment of the number of the pathogen in the sample. Enumerating the pathogen upon detection is crucial to estimate the potential risks with respect to disease development and provides a useful basis for diseases management decisions. Crops can be attacked by many pathogens which, in addition, often occur in complexes. Therefore, many disease diagnostic applications require simultaneous detection and quantification of several targets. Methodological limitations, however, are in many cases the reason for developing simplex or assays designed for only few targets. The DNA Microarray technology, originally designed to study gene expression and generate single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) profiles, is currently a new and emerging pathogen diagnostic technology, which in theory, offers a platform for unlimited multiplexing capability. It is viewed as a technology that fundamentally alters molecular diagnostics. The fast growing databases generated by genomics and biosystematics research provides unique opportunity for the design of more versatile, high-throughput, sensitive and specific molecular assays which will address the major limitations of the current technologies and benefit plant pathology.

Abstract

Indian is rich biodiversity and availability of a variety plants of enhances the interest of scientist for the possible use of plant products as natural herbicides. The emphasis should be to collect the information about such plants from the concerned people who have traditional knowledge about the use of these herbs and then to study scientifically to arrive at conclusions. The study of compounds produced by a plant which inhibit or stimulate the germination and the development of other plants is important for understanding the mechanisms of the ecologicalinteraction. Therefore, there is continuing need to develop and release new phytotoxic chemicals that preserve the environment and enable a more efficient control of weeds, improving crop yield and quality. Ageratum conyzoides a herb traditionally used for treatment of many diseases, releases some potential allelochemicals and other chemicals to the environment which inhibit the germination and growth of neighboring plants. A complete study of its potential allelochemicals may be useful in biological control for sustainable agriculture.

Abstract

Though India is second largest producer of fruits and vegetables but is far behind in per capita availability of this protective food as compared to many developed countries. Floriculture and allied horticulture crop production (spices, medicinal & aromatic crops, mushroom etc.) have great potential to generate high income, jobs and new careers. Hi-tech horticulture is the need of all the developing countries and it refers to “the precise production techniques for efficient use of inputs at appropriate time and quantity for maximization of yield and quality of crops”. Various ways to make horticulture hi-tech include modern nursery management including micro propagation, protected crop production, high density planting including canopy management, use of agrochemicals, rejuvenation technique, interated nutrient management, integrated water management, integrated pest and disease management. Inspite of this, in present context, major emphasis has been given on clean horticulture production with bio-derived, renewable energy sources for developing a profitable CEA (controlled environment agriculture) that would help in sustaining the system, improving socio-economic status of growers and of-course environment-friendly.

Abstract

Sustainable agriculture or farming is one that contributes to the overall objective ofsustainable developmenti.e. to meetthe present needs withoutcompromising the ability of the future generations to fulfill their own food needs and related demands from the land. A farming system is a complex, interrelated matrix of soils, plants, animals, power, implements, labour, capital and other inputs controlled by farming families and influenced to varying degrees by political, economical, institutional and social forces that operate at any levels. Research witha farmingsystems perspective has variousobjectivesranging fromincreasing the body of knowledge about farming system. The whole farming rather than the individual crops/enterprises need to be considered in the decision making under the farming systems approach. This is a multidisciplinary whole-farm approach and very effective in solving the problems of small and marginal farmers. Farming systems approach in analyzing the problems of agriculture is gaining lot of importance in recent years. Such a study would throw light on the problems associatedwith different farmingsystems and enable theacademicians and policy makers to formulate and implement appropriate policies for a balanced and integrated agricultural development.

Abstract

Modern agriculture largely depends on use of high cost inputs and energy intensive farm machinery. Worlds increasing population and continuously deteriorating soil fertility has alarmed agriculture system to look for some safe alternatives. Organic manures are rich source ofnutrients and humans, therefore crop residue recycling by composting is a best alternate of modern high cost input based agriculture. Compost is an aerobically decomposed organic matter .Bacteria, fungi, actinomycetes algae and protozoa are involved in the process of composting and are found throughout the natural environment. The composting material warms up due to microbial activity and it’s temperature becomes up to 160 ⁰F active stage of microbial activity . There are four types of compositing i.e. Windrow composting, Aerated static pile composting, In-Vessel composting and Vermi-composting. The C: N ratio, aeration, temperature and moisture are major factors affecting composting process. Major advantages of composting are: Aggregate formation, Reduction in bulk density, Increase in hydraulic conductivity, Reduction in loss of soil moisture, Increase in organic carbon content and pH of soil.

Abstract

Water scarce state Rajasthan is without efficient and effective management. Water, when at surface is cheaper and like free commodity to use. Most of it gets evaporated rapidly due to aridity. There is no water during summers and drought years. This is now critical time to rethink and review our planning and policies and make it ground water oriented instead of completely surface water based. Ground water management should be the thrust area and key issue. There is need to conserve andharvest each drop ofwater especially for recharge to ground water. Utilize the augmented ground water resources as crisis management during long dry spells. Also, enforcement of regulatory measures, creating awareness among masses and participatory approach ofmanagement are the key factors for ensuring sustainable availability of water resources.

Abstract

Seed technology deals with the various aspects of seed- right from production to make it readily and timely available to the end users. The advancement in seedtechnology was realizedlong back and itwas considered equally important to the development of new technology (varieties). Considering the importance of seed as well as variability among seed of different crop species or even in same crop species, the researchers initiated work and focused their direction of research accordingly which resultedinto worthy achievements. Brief overviews of the advancements made in seed technology are being discussed in this chapter. However, efforts are still on to get rid of problems of seed technology in order to strengthen the seed industry, which makes the highest contribution to rural development, probably among all industries.

Abstract

Plantbreeding is an ancientart practiced throughselection ofplants fordesirable traits. Over a period of time it has evolved into scientific discipline with various methodologiesbasedon theories and principles ofgenetics. Since the rediscovery of Mendel’s law, there has been accelerated increase in yield of various crop plants due to development of high yielding varieties. Conventional approaches of following phenotypic selection from a variable population in early generation followed by yield testing in later generations have been highly successful in most of the crop species. This coupled with hybrid varieties led to significant increase in food-grain production during later half of the 20^th century. At present manycrops are facing yield plateau asthey have reached their maximum genetic potential. The growing condition is also deteriorating due to changing climate. There is an urgent need among breeders to utilize full arsenal of techniques available to them to sustain crop productivity. Molecular markers and marker assisted selection has come as a boon to the breeders to increase the efficiency ofselection in early generation breeding especially for traits whose phenotypic evaluation is difficult. Further, transgenic technology has the potential to incorporate genes from diverse sources, thus enriching the gene pool from which breeders can search for specific traits. Although at present there is skepticism about transgenic crops among public but this may become a viable strategy in future.

Abstract

The genetic improvement of crop plants is possible only through employing an appropriate breeding technique. The use of plant breeding technique depends on mode of pollination and reproduction of plant species e.g. selection and hybridization are used in sexually reproduced species, while clonal selection in asexually propagated plant species. The plant species/ varieties are usually derived through conventional techniques (vi z. introduction, selection, hybridization etc.), which are commonly used in various breeding programmes, while some modern techniques viz. transgenic breeding and marker assisted selection etc. are also available which are equally effective for improvement of all crop species. Various techniques applied for development of new varieties and hybrids are briefly described in this section.

Plant breeding is an art, science and technology of improving genetic make-up of crop plants in relation to their economic usefulness for mankind. Various techniques/methods of breeding used for genetic improvement of crop plants are: introduction, selection, hybridization, mutation, transgenic breeding etc.

Classification of Breeding Techniques: Plant breeding techniques are classified as conventional and modern breeding techniques.

Flowers symbolize beauty, purity, peace and love. These are intricately associated with social beliefs and no social function is complete without the use of flowers; especially in a country like India, where it is a popular saying that flowers are associated with man from birth till death. Floriculture can be defined as a specialized branch of horticulture which deals not only with the cultivation of flowers, foliage, climbers, trees, shrubs, cacti, succulents, etc., but also with their marketing and production of value-added products from them.

Floriculture is increasingly regarded as a viable diversification from the traditional field crops due to higher returns per unit area and increasing habit of “saying it with flowers”. Flowers play a cardinal role in human behaviour and culture, bringing tranquility and peace of mind. From a symbol of love, flowers have transformed into an industry, generating both income as well as employment. India is blessed with a diversity of agroclimatic conditions prevailing in different regions of the country ensuring production of almost all the ornamental crops through out the year. Floriculture in India is a dynamic and expanding industry recording impressive annual growth rate.

The floriculture industry comprises of:

1. The florist trade traditional and contemporary cut flowers and cut foliage, both fresh and dried and value-added products like bouquets, floral baskets, flower arrangements and garlands.
2. The plant nursery for propagation and supply of plant material including tissue culture plants, seeds, bulbs, corms and other propagated material.
3. Plant rental service for supply of house plants on annual rent for a specific period.
4. Flower perfume and gulkand.

As a result of political changes in India, many entrepreneurs are changing to floricultural activities, which have become a high priority for the Indian government. Due to availability of sufficient winter and summer sunshine, high temperature, good soil fertility, good water quality, different climatic zones for different type of products and low labour and investment costs, India has great potential for floriculture. In the flower industry, significant changes are occurring in the competitive relationships worldwide. European integration, democratization in eastern Europe and the liberalization of world trade in the context of the GATT negotiations will have consequences on international trade. A number of traditional markets are displaying signs of saturation while, on the other hand, new countries are trying to get their place on the market. At the same time, we see new developing markets and in some parts of the world (USA, Japan) it is expected that per capita consumption will go up. Enormous genetic diversity, versatile human resources and varied agro-climate offers India unique scope for diversification not explored yet fully.

World Trade Organization (WTO) is an international body which deals with the “Rules of Trade” between nations on the basis of the agreements negotiated and signed by most of the world’s trading nations. These agreements are essentially contracts that bind governments to keep their trade policies within predefined limits. The goal is to help producers of goods and services, exporters and importers.

The purpose of WTO agreement is to help free flow of trade, serve as a forum for trade negotiations and to serve as a dispute settlement body. There are 5 broad principles of the trading system followed under WTO:

Trade without discrimination

Freer trade, gradually through negotiations

Predictability, through binding

Promotion of fair competition

Encouragement to development and economic reforms.

Information is a basic resource essential for individual and organization in order to survive and succeed in society. Floriculture is a technology driven industry needing technological advancement. The new technologies that are being developed at various places the world over, needs to be disseminated through proper and quick linkage between the researchers and the beneficiaries i.e. the farmers. This demand can be met out by information technology. Information is data put into a meaningful and useful text. Today, information technology (IT) is a metaresource and computers are being used as a metatool and a metamedia.

COMPONENTS OF INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY

An information technology architecture is an integrated framework for acquiring and evolving IT to achieve strategic goals. It has both logical and technical components. Logical components include mission, functional and information requirements, system configurations and information flows. Technical components include IT standards and rules that will be used to implement the logical architecture.

Input devices: The advent of touch screen monitors has made it possible to develop user-friendly interface for farmers. It is now possible to capture and store good quality graphics and video clips with digital cameras.

Output devices: Output devices like monitor screen, printers and plotters, data projectors support high resolution and good quality output.

Processors: The processing speeds of computers have improved a lot these days. At present, Intel P-IV based processors @ 3.3 Ghz are available in the PC range.

Storage devices: To store substantial information at local level. Capacity of 40 GB and higher are common in hard disk devices, besides floppy disk drives and CDs; all making it possible to transfer large amount of data to locations which cannot be connected to networks quickly.

Biotechnology can be defined as utilization of materials and methods for benefit of mankind by the utilization of microorganisms and biological agents. It is an area with a tremendous potential in solving basic problems of food, fibre, fuel and medicines in developing countries. According to the office of the Technology Assessment of the US Congress, biotechnology can be defined as any technique that uses living organisms to make or modify a product, to improve plants or animals or to develop micro organisms for specific uses. Flower industry has always increasing demand for new forms, colours and types of flowers. Biotechnology has made significant advances in the improvement of ornamental crops and development of new varieties has great potential to be utilized in future. Utilization of this technology can be done in floriculture under two broad subheads viz., tissue culture and genetic engineering.

TISSUE CULTURE

The major commercial utilization of tissue culture has been micropropagation, which is an alternative to vegetative propagation. Micropropagation permits true to type multiplication of a desired genotype using in vitro culture techniques. Micropropagation process can produce a large number of propagules in a relatively short time and space under controlled conditions. It has already revolutionized production process of several nurseries. The dream of multiplying disease free plants in required quantity on the specified time schedule in an industrial way has become true due to micropropagation. Some of the important floricultural crops that are successfully propagated in vitro in Indian laboratories are given below with their explant source:

Carnation: Leaf segments, internodes, petals

Gerbera: Leaf, petiole, flower stalk segments

Gladiolus: Inflorescence stalk, leaf sections

Orchids: Epidermal peelings, leaf segments, root tips

Rose: Internodal segments, petals, leaf segments, immature embryos, root segments

Flower growing, once used to be a gardener’s activity has today transformed into an astounding business proportion. Globally, more than 140 countries are involved in cultivation of floriculture crops. The global floriculture trade stands at US $ 60 billion with an annual growth rate of 10-15%. But the picture is not all that rosy. The extensive use of pesticides especially in greenhouse grown crops is threatening workers health and safety, besides disturbing environment and may also affect consumers health.

Gaston Dorren and Niala Maharaj, authors of “The Game of the Rose” noted that floriculture consumes more pesticides than any other agricultural sector. Floral workers suffer the brunt of the trade’s pesticide use. About 60% of Colombian flower workers (the sprayers and handlers) suffer from headaches, nausea, impaired vision, rashes and asthma, reports Pesticide Action Network, North America. A study published by the Netherlands ‘Ministry of Social Affairs and Employment’, reports that Dutch floral workers are exposed to pesticide concentrations of up to 60 times the amount considered safe.

Dr. Marion Moses of the San Francisco-based Pesticide Education Center says that many of the pesticides in use are highly toxic. “One of the chemicals widely used in greenhouses for flowers is temik (aldicarb), and that has caused serious problems”. Methyl bromide, an ozone destroyer and a category I acute toxin, among the most dangerous toxic substances known, is also heavily used in Latin America and the U.S. on flower crops. According to a 1997 EWG (Environmental Working Group) study, California-grown roses have 1000 times the level of cancer causing pesticides as comparable food products. Consumers are buying roses that, toxicity levels suggest, should be handled by workers wearing protective gear. Testing the leaves and petals of roses from California, New Hampshire, Colorado, Canada and Colombia, EWG found two probable human carcinogens, three Category I pesticides (the most hazardous) and three neurotoxins at up to 50 times the amount allowed in food.

INTRODUCTION

Zinnias are popular in flower gardens because of their variable coloured blooms and their ability to withstand hot summer temperatures. They are easy to grow from seeds. Plants come in many colours, shape and size adapted well to most growing conditions. Out of about twenty species, these are some eight to ten species of zinnia known to the gardens, but only few of them have become favourite and that abundantly deserves the pre-eminence. They have attained position as one of the most splendid of annual flowers. Most varieties are prolific bloomer, making them excellent for landscape. They are also available as compact varieties suitable for hanging baskets, window boxes and containers. Recently, new hybrid zinnia cultivars have attracted attention as a cut flower crop. There are at least hundred varieties in the diversity of flower colour and types. Some with flower heads upto 15 cm across. The colour of zinnias are white, cream, green, yellow, apricot, orange, red, bronze, crimson, purple and lilac with stripped, speckled and bicoloured flowers. An important variety of zinnia is Coccinea or Scarlet-rayed. This variety became popular after its existence in 1829 and was thought much of for its brilliant colour and stately habit. During the fifty years that have elapsed since it appeared, the flower has been in all characters and now posses a race of perfectly double zinnias, the flowers of which show no central disc, but are perfect rosettes of exquisite form and of every shade of colour except blue. There is not a more striking instance of floral advancement, accomplished by systematic selection, than is afforded by zinnia, which is at once one of the largest and long standing of many good and cheap annual flowers.

INTRODUCTION

Zantedeschia is commonly known as Calla lily. The other names are Arum lily, Aroid lily, Lily of the Nile and Pig lily. They are mainly grown for their attractive, large flower spathes, which are usually produced in the spring and summer and also for their variegated and spotted foliage. They are grown in large quantities by commercial growers because they are commonly used for decoration in Easter and throughout the spring and early summer months. It grows very well in open conditions in warm climate. Regular gardeners may have their bloom in winter, spring or early summer depending upon the temperature conditions maintained in the greenhouse.

Zantedeschia is an excellent cut flower and last a long time in water. There are various species, which produces different coloured flowers. The flower spathes of calla or arum lily (Zantedeschia aethiopica) are white, the spathes of the yellow or golden callas (Z. elliottiana) are yellow, whereas the pink calla (Z. rehmannii) produces lavender red, rose red, violet red or pink spathes. The white arum (common calla) forms large colonies in marshy areas ranging from the coast to an altitude of 2250 m above mean sea level. Thus, they may exist in humid, salt laden air at the coast and freezing, misty mountain grassland at high altitudes and as a result, are very versatile in the garden. The leaves of the calla are very interesting in that they contain water stomata, which can discharge excess water by a process known as guttation. This prevents logging and enables calla lily to grow in wet conditions.

INTRODUCTION

Tulips are one of the most popular and widely grown flowering plant. Tulip is a main stay of spring gardens providing abundant flowers in vivid and vibrant spectrum and colours. It is first among bulbous ornamentals due to its attractive colours and exquisite flowers. Tulip is the national flower of Turkey and tulip motifs feature prominently in Turkish folk arts. The first European cultivation of the tulips as a garden flower occurred in the Netherlands in sixteenth century. In the following century, the early enthusiasm for the new flowers triggered a speculative frenzy now known as tulipomania. The Netherlands and tulips are still associated with one other. Tulip festivals are held in the Netherlands and in North America every May. A number of bewitching cultivars grown to perfection in a large variety of delicate and brilliant shades have developed tulip cultivation into a great bulb growing industry. Tulips are not only widely cultivated for cut flower production world wide but also grown for pot culture, in beds, borders, formal and informal location. They are also suitable for growing in orchards, lawns, rockeries and wild gardens.

The word tulip industry is dominated by the Dutch tulip growers. There is 10,000 hectare of tulip bulbs grown in the Netherlands. About 70 per cent of tulip bulbs cultivated are for forcing for flowers with 30 per cent for pre packs for gardens. The world market for bulbs has been buoyant for the past ten years. Production has been increasing at the rate of 6-8 per cent per annum and the market has expanded in line with this growth. In the Netherlands, three quarters of the total bulbs produced are exported, with the highest percentage going to the United State followed by Germany. In India, tulips are gaining popularity among the flower growers owing to congenial climate in hilly areas. Particularly in Kashmir valley, production of cut flower is increasing. Some area has been increased in Himachal Pradesh. It can also be grown successfully in other hilly parts of the country like Uttaranchal between 1300 to 3000 metre above mean sea level.

INTRODUCTION

Among the important ornamental bulbous plants, tuberose occupies a very prominent position. In the orient, where ‘white’ goes for virtue and purity, tuberose flower is much adored for its prettiness, elegance and fragrance. It is commercially grown as cut flower, loose flower as well as for its potential in perfume industry.

The flowers of tuberose are used for artistic garlands, floral ornamentals, bouquets and buttonholes. The long flower spikes are excellent as cut flowers for table decoration when arranged in bowls and vases. They remain fresh pretty long time and stand long distance transportation and fill a useful place in the flower market.

Plants of tuberose can be used in landscapes; in all-white gardens or with other plants. Variegated varieties with golden or yellow striped leaves are very attractive and these varieties are suitable for garden beautification. Potted plants can be put in decorative containers and used for entranceways and interiors.

INTRODUCTION

Stock or Gilly flower is an annual or biennial plant flowering in terminal clusters. It exists as both single and double forms and is valued for fragrant flowers that can be used as fresh or dried cut flower. Stocks are a most valuable race of garden plants for they are easy to grow and can be in bloom during the greater part of the year. They are excellent pot plants for the greenhouse in winter and spring and provide good cut flowers. Flowers are well arranged on a long column and the colours are variable from white to rose, crimson, purple, yellow, mauve, pink, etc. Seeds of stock are aphrodisiac, bitter, diuretic, expectorant, stimulant and are used as tonic. An infusion has been used in the treatment of cancer and when mixed with wine, it has been used as an antidote to poisonous bites. The highly fragrant flowers are used as a garnish, especially with sweet deserts.