eChapters

Introduction

The National Commission on Agriculture defined agricultural marketing as a process which starts with a decision to produce a saleable farm commodity and it involves all aspects of market structure of system, both functional and institutional, based on technical and economic considerations and includes pre and post- harvest operations, assembling, grading, storage, transportation and distribution. The Indian council of Agricultural Research defined involvement of three important functions, namely (a) assembling (concentration) (b) preparation for consumption (processing) and (c) distribution.

Abstract

Seven different parents viz. July Elberta, Alton, J.H. Hale, Kanto-5, Saharanpuri, Quetta as female and Kateroo as male were used in the present crosses.  The crosses were made in the year 1997 and 76 hybrid seedlings under different crosses were raised  for these studies. The variability in respect of chemical characters, the mean values for titratable acidity for each cross varied between 0.50 to 0.75%, TSS 11.53 to 12.90oB,  reducing sugars from 2.33 to 2.88%, non-reducing sugars from 6.27 to 6.83%, total sugars from 9.24 to 10.05% and TSS/acid ratio between 14.47 to 23.90. The coefficient of variability varied 11.07 to 31.55% for titratable acidity, 0.00 to 23.02% for TSS, 5.24  to 18.53% for reducing sugars, 2.09 to 15.14% for non-reducing sugars, 0.00 to 6.80% for total sugars and 18.23 to 156.51% for TSS/acid ratio in these crosses.

ABSTRACT

Immature zygotic embryos were isolated from field grown papaya fruits harvested at 90-105 d post-anthesis. The embryos were placed on half-strength Murashige Skoog (MS) medium supplemented with 2, 4-D (2.0 mg l^-1) and cultured under dark for a period of 2 months. The frequency of callus formation was around 66%. After 2 months, calli were transferred onto a half-strength MS basal medium and cultured for 3 months with frequent subculturing (once in 3 wk) on the same medium. The frequency of somatic embryo formation was around 36.6%. The somatic embryos on MS medium supplemented with BAP (0.4 mg l^-1) and NAA (0.02 mg l^-1) germinated and produced shoots. The emerging shoots of 2-3 cm height with 2-3 trilobed leaves were placed onto an MS basal liquid medium with IBA (1.0 mg l^-1) for root induction. The plants developed with shoots and roots were planted in a pot-mixture (sand:soil:FYM) containing VAM.

Vegetables are short duration crops and provide more returns per unit area and time besides, they play a major role in balancing human diet, thus, helping in alleviating hunger and malnutrition (Annon., 2009). In the previous few years, India has attained quantum jump in vegetable production and present estimated vegetable production is around 162.9 mt in an area of about 9.4 mha (NHB, 2014), and holds second position at global level. But this level of vegetable production is insufficient to meet the recommended daily intake (~300 g per capita per day) for a huge population of the country. This is mainly due to lower average productivity (17.5 t/ha) of the nation. There are several crop diminishing factors such as soil borne- and foliar- diseases, insect-pests and nematodes as biotic factors, and soil or water salinity, alkalinity, metal toxicity and heat and moisture stress as abiotic factors, which greatly affect vegetable crops yield in almost all growing areas, especially in fragile arid and semi arid regions.

Lawn

Lawn is a natural green carpet, and it is important feature of a landscape and a garden without a lawn is not considerd complete. Lawn is an area of land closed mowed grasses it is primarily developed for aesthetic and recreational purpose. A lawn is an integral part of a garden and landscape besides aesthetic and recreational purpose and several other purposes. Lawn provides a place for taking rest after tiring of the day, holding parties, social functions, passive and active recreation. Distinguishing characteristic of turf grasses is the ability to with stand close mowing and still providing a functional dense healthy ground cover. Lawn is also called as heart of garden. Lawn can be called as turf pitch a field, sod, yard, are green depending upon the plantation usage continent. Lawn is a ground cover of perennial grass, ditch, persists enclose mowing and require proper management practice.

J.B. Olcoth designed first experiment in lawn grass at Monchester in USA in the 19th century. Festuca and Agrostis species were used to make turf (Lawn) during 1880 in U.K. In the early 19th century lawn become wild spread out side of parks golf course. Now a day in many metro cities of India lawn has become a cultural of the passion of many homes.

The art of Indian traditional knowledge regarding herbal medicine has a long history and can be considered as a potential source of new medicine. India has great potential in the market for herbal medicine, which is evident by the fact that medicinal plants required to prepare 50% of the drugs mentioned in the British Pharmacopoeia are reported to be present in the Western Himalayan region alone and India has approximately 8% of the world’s biodiversity, including plant genetic diversity with medicinal properties (Singh, 2006). Traditional medicine is widely used in rural areas, where 70% of the country’s population resides. Almost 75% of the medicinal plants grow naturally in different states of India. These plants are known to cure many ailments in animals.

Ethno Veterinary Practices

Ethno Veterinary Practices, also known as Traditional Veterinary Medicinal Practices are regarded as information gained over a period of time passed on from generation to generation. It is a community based functional knowledge system which has been developed, preserved and refined by generations of people through continuous interaction, observation and experimentation with their surrounding environment. Rural farmers mostly rely on ancestral ethno veterinary practices to deal with the diseases of their livestock and poultry. Veterinarians also show considerable interest in the medicinal plants, employed in traditional systems. This emerging trend in favour of herbal medicine is also due to the issues related to the antimicrobial drug resistance and drug residues in foods (milk/meat/eggs) of animal origin.

Essential oils are products of secondary metabolism and are secreted by specialized cells located in specified parts of most plants. By virtue of certain characteristic properties, they have wide spread use in perfumery, flavouring and medicine. Essential oils are variable mixtures of terpenoids. Since these oils are produced by plants, composition varies with species and variety of plant besides geography, climate and cultivation practices. Since, chemical components are highly reactive, physical and chemical environment to which oil is subjected to during the processes of its extraction, processing and storage have a great influence on final composition. Entire chain of activities from cultivation, extraction, processing, storage to packing has to be perfectly standardized and regulated to assure end product consistency. Being a valuable item of trade, this is important from the point of view of delivering desired activity as well as safety to consumer.

Q.1.    Enumerate the etiological agents responsible for Coliform mastitis.
    Ans.    Different serotypes of E. coli, Klebsiella sp. and Enterobacter aerogens.

Q.2.    What is the primary reservoir of Coliform mastitis?
    Ans.    Primary reservoir of Coliform is the dairy cow’s environment as it is an environmental pathogen, however, infected mammary gland acts as reservoir of Coliform mastitis

Q.3.    What is the important factors of E. coli that affect the normal bactericidal activity of leukocytes?
    Ans.    Lipopolysaccharide-endotoxin, somatic and capsular factors. Similarly, fibronectin binding property of E. coli is also an important virulence factor which help to adhere to ductular epithelium.

Abstract

The major subduction of the Indian plate and the related high magnitude earthquake (>9M) occurred in Sumatra region, triggered a major tsunami on 26, Dec 2004 which caused massive disasters in many coastal regions of South Asian countries including India, killing tens of thousands of life and causing property loss of several million rupees. Duly realizing the credentials of Geospatial / Geomatics technology and the expertise of NRDMS, an all India coordinated programme was conceived by NRDMS on tsunami disaster assessment and got it executed through six specialized institutions working on geomatics technology in the country. In the programme, the tsunami disaster in terms of natural, physical and human resources were assessed using geomatics technology and village wise digital databases were generated which will form a potential baseline information in coastal area.

Keywords: Indian Ocean Tsunami 2004, DST Initiatives, Disaster Assessment, Mitigation.

ABSTRACT

Aprotocol has been developed for the induction, maturation and germination of somatic embryos from leaf explants of Hevea brasiliensis (clone RRII 105). Leaf explants were cultured with their adaxial sides on modified Murashige and Skoog (MS) medium supplemented with different combinations of phytohormones such as 2,4-D & BA, NAA & BA as well as 2,4-D, BA and NAA. Compact calli could be developed from the cut ends of the explants on media containing 2,4-D (1.5 mg/l) and BA (1.0 mg/l) whereas pale yellow friable calli was obtained on media which contained NAA (0.2 mg/l) along with 2,4-D (1.2 mg/l) and BA (1.0 mg/l). The calli formed were detached from the explants and sub cultured for proliferation in medium containing reduced auxin (0.4 mg/l 2,4-D) and slightly increased level of sucrose (40 g/l). Proliferated calli were then sub cultured for embryo induction in modified MS medium supplemented with different auxins and cytokinins. Embryo induction could be achieved in modified MS medium containing BA (2.0 mg/l), GA (1.0 mg/l) and NAA (0.2 mg/l) and maturation occurred in WPM medium containing BA (0.3 mg/l), TDZ (0.5 mg/l) and GA (1.5mg/l). The cotyledonary stage embryos developed into plantlets on transfer to hormone free ½ MS medium. A distinct feature of this study is the induction of somatic embryogenesis from leaf explants of Hevea which has not been reported previously. This explant could be used further as an ideal target tissue for Agrobacterium mediated genetic transformation in Hevea.

The crop growth and productivity is conditioned by many factors of which, the nutrient status (Content) of plant parts such as leaf, stem, etc play a critical role. Moreover the leaf and stem are considered as the indicator parts of plants for assessing the nutrients content of plant. Each crop plant requires the essential element at a specific concentration at different growth stages and it is known as ‘critical level’. When the nutrient content of plant depletes below the critical level the plants may exhibit some symptoms. The requirement or otherwise the availability of nutrients can be assessed by i) plant diagnosis ii) soil analysis and iii) plant analysis by two methods a) by qualitative test and b) by quantitative estimation. Based on the plant or soil tests, the required nutrients can be applied for crops to sustain the growth and rectify the deficiency disorders. The rapid tissue test would pave way for rectifying the nutritional problems for quick recovery, however the quantitative estimation of both plant and soil for nutrients concentration will be more useful and economic for applying fertilizers either as basal or foliar and would be the long term strategy to cope up with nutritional problems.

For rapid tissue test to assess the nutrient status, different parts of plant should be taken as indicator tissue and some of the representative crops are furnished below:

Objectives

• To study working principles of compound microscope
• Study different parts of compound microscope

Introduction

A compound microscope is an optical instrument consisting of two short focal-length convex lenses that are used to observe the highly magnified images of small objects by naked eyes. The compound microscope is capable of magnifying up to 1000 the image of a small object by complex system of lens arrangement. The working distance varies from 0.14 to 4 mm. Compound microscopes generally require the sample to be seen to be sufficiently thin, or translucent, to allow the light to pass. Such microscopes provide high magnification, but the view is two-dimensional.

Garden

Garden is a place where vegetables, fruits and ornamental plants are grown mainly for recreation. The garden incorporates both natural and man-made materials.

Types of garden

The major garden types which shall be discussed are: English garden, Mughal garden, Persian garden, Italian garden, French garden, Japanese garden etc. Out of these the Mughal, Persian, Italian and French styles fall in the category of formal gardens, whereas the English and Japanese gardens are classified in the informal style of gardening.

Quite a large number of vegetable crops are grown in the country either on a commercial scale or limited to backyards of homesteads. A few crops have similarity while others have dissimilarity in their climatic and soil requirements, parts used, method of cultivation etc. While describing individual vegetables, there is possibility of repetition in many aspects. In order to avoid repetition, it is essential to classify or group them into different classes/groups. Different methods of classification followed in vegetables are described below:

I. Botanical classification

Botanical classification is based on taxonomical relationship among different vegetables. Plant kingdom is divided into four viz. Thallophyta, Bryophyta, Pteridophyta and Spermatophyta. All vegetables belong to Division Angiospermae of Spermatophyta. It is further divided and two classes viz., Monocotylydoneae and Dicotylydoneae.

Hilly areas of India, especially the Himalayas and the Nilgiris which are rich in their forests areas and watersheds have played a major role in maintaining climatic and ecological balance in the country for a long time. These hills and mountain areas have specific characteristics which differs them from plains in diversity of habitats for flora and fauna, ethnic diversity, topography, elevation, physiographic feature land use systems and socio-economic conditions. Agro-biodiversity The hills are characterized by rich agrobiodiversity. These rich agro-diversity elements have evolved, over the years due to association with the communities distributed along the mountain and hill slopes.

The process of making dried milk involves eliminating water from milk, primarily through spray or roller drying. It is regarded as a significant sector of the dairy industry and is made from whole cow, buffalo, or standardized milk. Skim milk powder (SMP) is made from milk after the fat has been removed whereas whole milk powder (WMP) is made from whole cow or buffalo milk

FSSA (2006) Standard Of Milk Powder According to FSSA (2006), Milk powder is the product obtained by partial removal of water from the milk of cows and/or buffalo. The fat and/or protein content of the milk may be adjusted by the addition and/or withdrawal of milk constituents in such a way as not to alter the whey protein to casein ratio of the milk. It shall be of uniform color and shall have pleasant taste and flavor, free from off-flavor and rancidity. It shall also be free from vegetable oil/fat, mineral oil, thickening agents, added flavor, and sweetening agents. It may contain food additives. It shall conform to the microbiological requirements prescribed by FSSA (2006).

Water activity, high storage temperatures, longer than usual storage times, high product moisture content, high processing temperatures, and container headspace are some of the variables that affect the Maillard reaction in dried milk.

Casein and whey proteins are the major proteins present in milk. Unlike casein, whey proteins are heat-labile. Whey protein fractions present in milk are α-lactalbumin, β-lactoglobulin, bovine serum albumin, immunoglobulin, euglobulin, and lactoferrin. β-lactoglobulin and κ-casein interact during heat treatment. When milk is refrigerated for longer than 24 h, it forms γ-casein and protease-peptone fractions.

Introduction

Pulmonary vascular tone regulation involves the balance between vasoconstriction and vasodilation, primarily controlled by pulmonary artery smooth muscle cells (PASMCs) and endothelial cells (Lyle et al., 2017). This regulation is influenced by various factors, including ion channels, which modulates the flow of ions like K+, Ca2+, Na+ and Cl- across cell membranes, affecting vascular contraction and relaxation. Diseases like pulmonary artery hypertension (PAH) are attributed to dysregulation of vascular tone, which is essential for preserving ideal blood flow and pressure in the lungs (Christou and Khalil, 2022). Excessive vasoconstriction and impaired vasodilation increase pulmonary arterial pressure. This heightened resistance strains the right ventricle, leading to heart failure over time. Dysregulated ion channel movement in PASMCs is often a key factor in the development and progression of the disease. Ion channel receptors are promising candidates for medical therapy for the amelioration of pulmonary vascular disorders. Agents that regulate the functioning of ion channels may be employed to treat aberrant pulmonary blood vessel tone (Jouen-Tachoire et al., 2021).

Abstract

Lean season ornamentals of Shimla are observed for two years. Out of them, the flowering plants include those blooming more or less throughout the year, those having extended flowering up to early winter i.e. November, those begins to flower well before their actual flowering season i.e. spring and those which yield flowers mostly in winter. Some plants having good stalk length, keeping quality and attractive flower such as Reinwardtia indica, Asclepias curassavica and Spermadictyon suaveolens can be tried as cut flower. Some of foliage plants during spring produce beautiful flowers. Planting of these dual purpose plants will have the advantage of beautifying these temperate hills all the year round. Others are evergreen foliage plants with insignificant flower value. All the above plants belong to various utilitarian groups viz. annuals, herbaceous perennials, trees, climbers etc. and can be put into different uses. Some are potential multipurpose economic plants. This preliminary treatise reveals that there are adequate plants available within the premises of Shimla for lean season beautification. The ways to proceed further are also detailed.

2.1. Definition

Land which is presently lying unused or which is not being used to its optimum potential due to some constraints

Besides diversities and advantages in hills, the communities sustain largely on subsistence farming due to following constraints A.Natural constraints in hills There are large number of Inherent limitations in hill agriculture like, remote areas, vulnerability, marginality , eroded soil and short growing seasons. These Inherent constraints can be judged by the use of unsustainability indicators of hill agriculture which further showed increased in soil erosion rates from sloping farmlands , leaving of agricultural land due to decreasing soil fertility, appearance of stones and rocks on the cultivated lands, reduction in forest and grazing areas and more emphasis on monocropping that widened the cycle of inadequate food production and lead to food insecurity and increasing unemployment and frustration (Table 3) (Shrestha, 1992). These natural constraints are.