eChapters

India, the progenitor of the present day chicken, is a vast country having varying climatic zones such as the high altitude Himalayan regions, the Indo-Gangatic plains, the Deccan plateau in the south and hot and humid coastal areas. Although, no exact data is available, factual information suggest that poultry raising in this sub continent is as old as its civilization. Owing to the long widespread chicken raising in the vast territory of this country and manifold ecological niches at different places, many native breeds were evolved over the years some of the documented breeds and ecotypes are Aseel, Ankaleshwar, Busra, Brown Desi, Chittagong, Daothigir, Denki,  Ghagus,  Haringhatta black, Kadakanath,  Kalasthi, Kashamir faverolla,  Miri,  Naked neck, Frizzle, Punjab brown, Tellichery, Titri, Teni and Nicobari.

Introduction

India (8^o-30^o N and 68-97.5^ºE) exhibits a wide range in topography and climate, which has a bearing on its vegetation and floristic composition. This subcontinent is one of the World’s 12 leading Biodiversity Centres, encompassing 16 different agro-climatic zones, 10 vegetation zones, 25 biotic provinces and about 426 habitats of specific species. It has been estimated that about 45,000 plant species (nearly 20% of the global species) occurs in the Indian Sub-continent. About 3,500 species of both higher and lower plant groups are of medicinal values. More than 80 per cent of medicinal and aromatic plants (MAPs) are collected from 17 million hectares of Indian forest land. However, many of these, due to over-exploitation have become rare (Rheum emodi, Aconitum deinorrhizum), threatened (Rauvolfia serpentina, Berberis artistata) or endangered ones (Sassurea lappa, Dioscorea deltoidea). Problems arising out of rapid genetic loss of medicinal plants forced the need for international co-operation and co-ordination to undertake programmes for conservation of medicinal plants to ensure that adequate quantities are available for future generations.

Introduction

Fish production in aquaculture has increased dramatically over the last 20 years with an increment of 9-10% per year over the last decade. Microbial disease problems are prevalent in aquaculture as in any other intensive animal or plant production sector. Vaccines are used as disease prevention and can be very effective, however, they do not work at all developmental stages of fish or in all species. Therefore, antibiotics play a major role in control of fish bacterial diseases, although serious concerns have been raised with respect to development of antibiotic resistance and its transfer to human pathogenic bacteria. Also, new EU regulations call for specific license for antibiotic use in aquaculture and this is too costly even for fish farmers.

The urgent need for development and application of non-antibiotic disease control measures has led to research in probiotic organisms. Probiotics are “live microorganisms which when administered in adequate amount, confer a health benefit on the host (FAO/WHO 2001)” and the principle is most widely known from the belief that ingestion of high numbers of lactic acid bacteria (fermented foods) can control human pathogenic organisms in the intestine. Fish pathogenic agents, however, can invade via skin and gills and probiotic organisms may therefore be as efficient if applied to the outer environment of the fish.

Presentation of data is done in form of diagram and graphs.

Diagrammatic Presentation: The data are presented in form of diagrams

The important diagrammatic presentations are simple bar diagram, multiple bar diagram, component bar diagram, percentage bar diagram & pie diagram.

Selection of diagram depends upon the nature of classification, number of characters involved and the type of comparison required to be made. In all the diagrams, the groups or classes are represented on the X-axis and the volumes or frequencies are represented in the Y-axis. The title of these visual aids should be self-explanatory.

1. Simple Bar Diagram: Simple bar diagrams consist of vertical bars of equal width. The height of these bars is proportional to the magnitude of the attribute. All bars are separated from each other by equal intervals. Simple bar diagram is used if the classification is based on attributes and if the attributes are to be compared with respect to a single character. For example, the area under different crops in a state, the production of mangoes in different years for a state, the yield of a variety at different fertilizer level, etc, can be represented by the simple bar diagram. Also the yield performance of different varieties of a crop, the effects of different treatments etc, can be compared using simple bar diagrams.

9.1. INTRODUCTION

A data are generally voluminous, so they need to be put in a compact and presentable form. This chapter deals with presentation of data precisely so that the voluminous data collected could be made usable readily and are easily comprehended. There are generally three forms of presentation of data:

Textual or Descriptive presentation

Tabular presentation

Diagrammatic presentation

In this unit, we will explore the essential skills necessary for presenting radio and television programs in a way that ensures they are engaging, effective, and successful in communication. It is widely recognized that even a program with strong content and a well-crafted script can fail to achieve the desired impact if it is not delivered in an appealing manner. We will analyze the key qualities of an effective presenter and examine the process of refining a script before it is presented on air, whether through a microphone or in front of a camera.

Presentation Techniques for Radio

The overall impact of a radio program is determined by the script, production quality, and the manner of presentation. While it can be argued that presentation and packaging fall under production quality, it is crucial to recognize that in an aural medium, the choice of words in the script is just as important as their delivery. Therefore, radio producers must be equally adept at presentation techniques, as these can significantly influence the success or failure of the entire production.

Introduction
This chapter discusses the crucial final stage of any video or multimedia production: the presentation. A well-produced program needs to be presented effectively to captivate, inform, and engage the intended audience. This chapter explores various facets of presenting a produced program, including preparation, techniques for impactful presentation, adapting to the platform and audience, and post-presentation considerations.
Understanding the Importance of Presentation
• Setting the Tone: A well-presented program captures the essence and quality of the production. Presentation directly influences how audiences perceive the program’s message, style, and relevance.
• Role in Communication: Presentation serves as the final link between the production team and the audience. It ensures the message is not only delivered but also absorbed and remembered.
• Branding and Identity: The presentation also reflects the program’s identity and the reputation of the production team or organization, affecting brand perception and credibility.

Presentation takes place all the time in organization. We are required to make presentation in meeting, seminar, conference etc. The presenter should know certain techniques to make his presentation effective.

In natural farming systems, preserving and storing animal feed is a crucial part of feed management, especially where fodder availability changes with theseasons. These methods help farmers retain the nutritional value of feed, prevent spoilage, and ensure a steady supply throughout the year without using synthetic preservatives or commercial storage solutions. Given the seasonal nature of fodder production—particularly in rainfed and smallholder regions—it is essential to store surplus biomass from abundant months for use during leaner periods.
Natural preservation emphasizes traditional, low-cost, and eco-friendly techniques adapted to local climate and resources. These practices not only reduce wastage and nutrient loss but also help farmers remain less reliant on marketpurchased feed, supporting sustainable and resilient livestock feeding.

Definition: Food preservation can be defined as the science which deals with the process of prevention of decay or spoilage of food thus allowing it to be stored in a safe condition for future use. All foods gradually undergo deterioration or spoilage from the time they are harvested or manufactured. Some commodities spoil rapidly, while others can keep for longer but limited periods.
Preservation is a set of techniques used to extend the shelf life of perishable fruits and vegetables, maintaining their quality, nutrition, and safety. Proper preservation methods are crucial in post-harvest management to reduce wastage, meet consumer demands, and ensure food security. Let us explore the principles and methods of preservation using easy vocabulary
Principles of Preservation
• Temperature Control: Preservation involves maintaining low temperatures to slow down enzymatic and microbial activity. Lower temperatures can inhibit the growth of spoilage microorganisms and extend the freshness of fruits and vegetables.
• Removal of Air and Moisture: Air and moisture can accelerate deterioration and spoilage. Preservation methods often involve vacuum sealing or drying to remove air and reduce moisture content.

Sugar also acts as preservative at high concentration 70% or more in food products (fruit and vegetable products). High concentration of sugar in food materials create unfavourable conditions for microbial survival and prevent spoilage. Based on this principle of preservation, sugar based products are prepared from fruits and vegetables so that they can be preserved for long time. This method of preservation with high sugar concentration is principally based on the reduction in moisture content to arrest or stop microbial spoilage. Preparation of sugar based products is one of the most important aspects of home scale as well as industrial level processing of fruits and vegetables. Sugar based value added products include.

7.1. Introduction

Preservation of fruit and vegetables by application of heat is one of the important methods of food preservation as it not only imparts desirable effect in the eating quality of the food but also exerts a preservative effect on the foods by destruction of micro-organisms, enzymes, insects and parasites. Other advantages of heat processing include destruction of anti nutritional factors (e.g. trypsin inhibitor in some legumes), improvement in availability of some nutrients (eg improved digestibility of proteins, gelatinization of starches, and release of bound niacin), production of shelf-stable foods that do not require refrigeration and above all it offers a relatively simple control of processing conditions. The disadvantages of heat processing include alteration or destruction of sensory quality of foods like flavor, colour, taste and texture as a result the heat processed foods are perceived to have different quality as compared to fresh produce.

Introduction
Processing fruit and vegetables by applying heat is one of the most important methods of preservation as it exerts a positive preservative effect on the foods by destroying spoilage causing micro-organisms, enzymes, insects, parasites, etc. Heat processing also improves the availability of nutrients by improving digestibility, releasing vitamins like bound niacin, destroying anti-nutritional factors like trypsin inhibitor in some legumes including soybean, causing gelatinization of starches, and producing shelf-stable products. However, heating also causes some alteration or destruction of the sensory quality of fresh foods like changes in flavor, color, taste, and texture as a result, heatprocessed foods are perceived to have different sensory qualities than fresh produce.
Preservation by heat (thermal processing) involves heating foods in hermetically sealed containers for a specific time at a particular temperature to eliminate/kill/inactivate the microbial pathogens that endanger public health
and micro-organisms and enzymes that deteriorate food during storage. Most of the raw material used for canning is usually contaminated with different species and strains of bacteria, molds, and yeasts undergoing different stages of growth (lag phase, log phase, stationary phase, vegetative phase, sporulation phase, etc.,). Amongst these, bacterial spores are more difficult to inactivate. Thus, the criteria for heat processing chosen to inactivate the spores are also presumed to be capable of inactivating all other forms of microorganisms. Unlike fruits, most vegetables being low acid or even non-acid require a severe heat treatment to kill most bacteria. It is, therefore, necessary to work out the proper time and temperature combination for each category of food to ensure complete preservation.

Process of preservation of food stuffs such as fruits and vegetables whole or in pieces in sugar syrup or brine by heating them in hermetically sealed containers for long storage is known as canning. In other words canning is the process of sealing food stuffs hermetically in containers and sterilizing them by heat for long storage.

Introduction
The addition of sugar in foods acts as a preservative when its concentration is above 66%. It absorbs most of the available water and restricts the availability of moisture required for the growth of microorganisms. Sugar adds value to the product by imparting sweetness as well as body to these products. When sugar is boiled with acid and fruits, it is hydrolysed into glucose and fructose, the degree of inversion depending upon the pH and duration of boiling. Because of the inversion of sucrose, a mixture of sucrose, glucose and fructose is found in products like jam, jelly, marmalade, preserves and candies.
Jams, jellies and marmalades constitute an important class of fruit products preserved by using sugar as the method of preservation. Apple jam, mango jam, pineapple jam, strawberry jam and mixed fruit jam prepared by using the pulp of two or more fruits are quite common. Similarly, guava jelly and orange marmalade are also examples of such products.
A fruit preserve is made from properly matured fruit by cooking it whole or in the form of large pieces in heavy sugar syrup, till it becomes tender and transparent. A fruit impregnated with cane sugar and glucose, followed by subsequent draining and drying is called a candied fruit (Fruit candy) e.g. petha candy, ginger candy. While candied fruit covered or coated with a thin transparent coating of sugar, which imparts to it a glossy appearance is referred to as a glazed fruit. When candied fruit is coated with sugar crystals either by rolling it in powdered sugar or by allowing the sugar crystals from glucose syrup to deposit on it, it becomes a crystallized fruit (Crystallized Candy). The use of high concentrations of sugar in these products acts as a preservative. Products like Petha candy, aonla preserve, candied citrus peels, ginger candy, ginger in syrup, bael, pineapple and carrot preserve are the commercial products in this category.

6.1. Introduction

Chemical preservatives are those substances which minute organoleptic and physico-chemical properties . Preservation of food products with chemical preservatives is usually based on the combined or synergistic activity of several additives, intrinsic product parameters (e.g. composition, acidity, water activity) and extrinsic factors (e.g. processing and storage temperature).

Many chemical substances are added to the food for functional purposes and are called as additives and in many cases these are found to occur naturally in some foods. An additive is defined as a substance or mixture of substances other than basic food ingredient present in a food as a result of any aspect of production, processing or packaging.

Introduction
Many chemical substances are added to the food for functional purposes and in many cases, these are found to occur naturally in some foods. When these substances are added to the foods, they are known as food additives. An additive is defined as a substance or mixture of substances other than basic food ingredients that are present in a food as a result of any aspect of production, processing or packaging. Additives may be intentional as well as unintentional. Intentional additives are substances deliberately added to perform a specific function and to increase the shelf life of the products while unintentional additives have no intended function in the finished product but become part of that particular product. The food additives having significance in fruit and vegetable preservation and their mode of action are discussed as under:
Objectives of adding an additive
1. To reduce wastage and improve keeping quality e.g., the addition of potassium meta-bisulphite in squashes, benzoate in sauces, sodium propionate in bread and sorbic acids in cheese etc.,
2. To improve and maintain nutritive elements e.g., addition of vitamins for enrichment, addition of vitamin D to milk, addition of iodine to salt etc.
3. To enhance the quality and consumer acceptability of the product e.g., the addition of colouring agents, emulsifiers, thickeners etc.
4. To facilitate the preparation of foods e.g., the addition of acid to beverages, sugar in jams, jellies etc.

10.1. Introduction

Sugar acts as a preservative by osmosis and sugar is not a true poison fo micro organisms. It absorbs most of the available water and restricts the availability of water/moisture required for growth of micro-organism. The concentration of 68 70% sugar is used for preparation of jam and jellies. Sugar adds value to these products as it imparts sweetness as well as body to these products. When sugar is boiled with acid and fruits it is hydrolyzed into dextrose and fructose, the degree of inversion depending on the pH and duration of boiling. Because of inversion of sucrose, a mixture of sucrose, glucose and fructose are found in jams and jellies.

Jams, jellies and marmalades constitute an important class of preserved fruit products. Apple jam, pineapple jam, strawberry jam and mixed fruit jam prepared by using pulp of two or more fruits are quite common. Similarly, guava jelly and orange marmalade are also examples of such products.

11.1. Introduction

A fruit preserve is a product made from properly matured fruit by cooking it whole or in the form of large pieces in heavy sugar syrup, till it becomes tender and transparent. A fruit impregnated with cane sugar and glucose, followed by subsequent draining and drying is called a candied fruit e.g. petha candy, ginger candy. Further, candied fruit covered or coated with a thin transparent coating of sugar, which imparts a glossy appearance is referred to as a glaced fruit. When candied fruit is coated with sugar crystals either by rolling it in powdered sugar or by allowing the sugar crystals from glucose syrup to deposit on it, it becomes a crystallized fruit. The use of high concentration of sugar in these products acts as the preservative. The products like Petha candy, aonla preserve, apple rings; candied citrus peels, ginger candy, ginger in syrup; bael, pineapple and carrot preserve are the commercial products in this category.

Abstract

Microbes are key ingredients of various ecosystems and backbone of modern biotechnology and industry. In addition to their cultivation, purification and characterization, preservation of microorganisms is equally important. Different preservation methods and protocols have been developed for long term preservation of microbes. Microbial Resource Centers (MRCs) are providing active services in the field of life sciences. National Centre for Microbial Resource (NCMR) at National center for Cell Science (NCCS), Pune is one of the MRCs. Unlike aerobes little work has been done in the area of cultivation and preservation of anaerobic microbes. In the previous chapter we have discussed the technicalities and problems of anaerobic cultivation. The aim of current chapter is to provide the recent overview of preservation of anaerobic microorganisms like methanogens, sulfate and metal reducers and the obligate anaerobes of clinical and industrial importance with fermentative mode of life style.