eChapters

Disease Control vs. Disease Management

The word control evokes the notion of finality, the final elimination of problems .

It is impossible to exclude , eliminate or prevent diseases.

Control is ecologically and practically not possible.

Although disease control is an established and widely understood concept, there are compelling reasons to replace control with management .

INTRODUCTION

Plant diseases have caused severe losses to humans in several ways. Starvation and uprooting of families resulted from the Irish famine caused by potato late blight . A valued resource was lost with the virtual elimination of the American chestnut by chestnut blight. And direct economic loss such as the estimated one billion dollars lost in one year to American corn growers from southern corn leaf blight . Many plant diseases cause less dramatic losses annually throughout the world but collectively constitute sizable losses to farmers and can reduce the aesthetic values of landscape plants and home gardens.

The goal of plant disease management is to reduce the economic and aesthetic damage caused by plant diseases. Conventionally, this has been called plant disease control, but current social and environmental values believe “control” as being absolute and the term too rigid. More multifaceted approaches to disease management, and integrated disease management, have resulted from this shift in attitude. However, single, often severe, measures, such as pesticide applications, soil fumigation or burning are no longer in common use. Further, disease management measures are often determined by disease forecasting or disease modeling rather than on either a calendar or prescription basis. Disease management might be viewed as proactive whereas disease control is reactive, although it is often difficult to distinguish between the two concepts, especially in the application of specific measures.

Plant disease management practices rely on anticipating occurrence of disease and attacking vulnerable points in the disease cycle (i.e., weak links in the infection chain). Therefore, correct diagnosis of a disease is necessary to identify the pathogen, which is the real target of any disease management program. A thorough understanding of the disease cycle, including climatic and other environmental factors that influence the cycle, and cultural requirements of the host plant, are essential to effective management of any disease.

Horticultural crops are ideal and valuable assets of nature to mankind. They are popular among masses since time immemorial but their importance was realized only in the recent past due to their high nutritive value, good taste and pleasing quality. They provide essential nutrients and minerals for proper functioning of human body and aesthetic surroundings for peaceful living. India is an important centre of diversity and several horticultural crops  originated here.  The horticultural crops constitute 13.08% of total crop area and contribute about 28% to GDP. The sub-continent extends from 8° 04’ - 37° 06’ North latitude and 68° 07’- 97° 25’ East longitude and it has tropical, sub-tropical and temperate climates which favour successful growing of a large number of horticultural crops.  India has a wide variety of climate and soil on which a large number of horticultural crops like fruits, vegetables, potato and other tropical tuber crops, ornamentals, medicinal and aromatic plants, plantation crops, spices, cashew and cocoa are grown. Of late, major emphasis was laid on development of high yielding varieties and high production technologies and their adoption in areas of assured irrigation paved the way towards food security.

India produces 9.2% of world’s vegetables and fruits, nearly 109 million tons of vegetables and 57.69 million tons of fruits. The production of horticultural commodities is expected to grow to 300 million tons in near future (Kaur, 2008). India accounts for 18.2% of global trade in vegetables and 0.5% in fruits. The overall food wastages are very high amounting to around Rs. 10.4 lakh million. India wastes more fruits and vegetables than what U.K consumes. It is estimated that cumulative wastage of fruits and vegetables, on the farm, during procurement, storage and at the retail outlets, is worth about Rs.422250 million. 

The fruits and vegetables are highly perishable in nature. The losses in harvested fruits and vegetables start immediately after harvesting and the resulting spoilage caused by biochemical changes (enzymatic) and activity of microorganisms such as bacteria, moulds and yeast. The losses caused by the microorganism in fruits and vegetables products can be prevented by controlling or destroying these organisms in order to preserve fruits and vegetables by processing and preservation means. The processing and preservation is one of the most important activities among various types of activities of Horticultural Science.

Processing: The processing can be defined as an activity, which is performed to maintain or improve the quality or to change the form or characteristics of the product. Processing operations are undertaken to add value to horticultural produce after their production. The main purpose of processing is to minimize the qualitative and quantitative deterioration of produce after harvest.

Preservation: Preservation can be defined as the science which deals with the methods of prevention of decay or spoilage of produce and allow it to be stored in a fit condition for future use.

Fruits and vegetables can be preserved for short and long term. For short term preservation can be achieved by proper handling of produce and low temperature storage. Long term preservation can be achieved by canning, drying and dehydration, fermentation and by using chemical preservatives.

Public relations (PR) encompass a diverse range of tools and techniques designed to create, maintain, and improve the public image of an organization or individual. These tools serve to engage different audiences, manage brand perception, and build trust. With the rise of digital media, traditional PR tools have evolved, blending with new digital strategies. This chapter explores essential PR tools, offering insights into how they work, their applications, and relevant case studies to illustrate their effectiveness.
Public relations tools are varied and adaptable, designed to communicate effectively and build relationships with different publics. Here’s a list of common PR tools, each with a unique role in achieving PR goals:
1. Media Relations
2. Press Releases
3. Media Kits
4. Newsletters
5. Social Media
6. Events and Press Conferences
7. Public Service Announcements (PSAs)
8. Sponsorships and Partnerships
9. Blogs and Content Marketing
10. Community Engagement and Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) Initiatives
11. Influencer and Blogger Outreach
12. Crisis Communication Plans
13. Surveys and Polls
14. Email Campaigns
15. Webinars and Virtual Events

Radiation therapy is the delivery of ionizing radiation to a specific body areas with the goal of obtaining maximum lesion control with minimal complication. Radiation therapy is based on the fact that ionizing radiation is lethal to the cells, particularly rapidly dividing ones. Normal cells in the irradiated area may be as sensitive to ionizing radiation as tumor cells. Therefore, the normal tissue response limits the amount of ionizing radiation that can be tolerated by the patient. Effective use of radiation therapy requires an understanding of the physics of the radiation used and normal cellular and tumor biology as it relates to radiation therapy as well as an appreciation of the clinical application of veterinary radiation therapy.

Radiographic positioning refers to placement of the body in respect to linear alignment of X-ray tube and film. Correct positioning is a most important prerequisite to obtain a diagnostic radiograph. Misinterpretations can result from inaccurate positioning.  Label the film before exposure with anatomical lead markers/ X-rite tape. The anatomical markers should be placed in close proximity to the area of interest without overlying important structures. At least two exposures of the part at 900 to each other should be taken to get complete anatomical information of the part.

Concept: Seed blending is the process of merging two or more types of the same species, for as Kentucky bluegrass cultivars Merion, Baron, and Park. Contrarily, seed mixing refers to the blending of two or more species, however every species may have more than one variation represented, such as Jamestown and Cascade chewing fescue combined with Merion and Fylking Kentucky bluegrass. Seed is typically distributed in blends, primarily Kentucky bluegrass blends, for sod growing purposes. For home lawns, parks, and other utility areas where upkeep levels would not be adequate to maintain pure Kentucky bluegrass turf, mixes of different grasses are typically employed. Naturally, when it comes to pure seed quality, no blend of grass seeds is superior to the individual ingredients. Every time a new blend needs to be made; extreme caution must be taken to ensure that the mixing equipment can be completely cleaned to prevent any contamination from unwanted species—bent grasses are perhaps the most challenging to deal with.

I. FILL UPS

1. _____ is required during raising of a seed crop to avoid contamination due to natural crossing.
2. _____ is another potent source of genetic contamination i.e., the plants differing in their characteristics from the seed variety.
3. Removal of off types is referred as _____.
4. _____ is the distance maintained between the seed crop and source of contaminant.
5. The isolation distance for cotton foundation seed production is _____.
6. The isolation distance for paddy is _____.

1. GENETIC PRINCIPLES

1.1. Maintenance of genetic purity during seed production

The methods suggested by Home (1953) and Hartmann and Kester (1968) may be used wholly or in part to maintain high levels of genetic purity during seed production.

The various steps suggested by Home (1953) to maintain varietal purity are as follows:

6.1. Genetic principles

6.1.1. Maintenance of genetic purity during seed production

1. Steps suggested by Home (1953)

Objective of Seed Storage

The primary goal of seed programs, which include storage, is to maintain the high standards of the seed from harvest until the crop is sown in the following or future seasons. Additionally, seeds are kept in storage for longer periods of time for a variety of reasons, including protection against crop failures during emergencies or natural disasters, maintaining active genetic stocks for breeding, germplasm preservation for long-term use, stock preservation for the domestic and international seed trade in response to market demands, and parental line seed preservation for the transnational seed industry during one or more growing seasons. The seeds of most major agricultural species can be classified as either orthodox or desiccation tolerant. A drop in storage temperature and relative humidity, commonly referred to as seed moisture content, shortens their shelf life. Seeds deteriorate even in dry storage because of alterations caused by pests and pathogens as well as physiological deterioration. This is accurate, even though the amount of time seeds takes to germinate and stay viable varies according to the makeup of the different plant species. A good seed program handles the seed with care, regulates the store’s temperature and relative humidity (or seed moisture in the case of hermetically sealed containers), and adheres to good sanitation practices to preserve the high planting value of the seed in terms of purity, germination, vigour, and seed health.

“Standards are to Industry as Culture is to Society” said Shri C. Rajagopalachari, the first Governor General of India. Shri C. Rajagopalachari was inaugurating a conference on Standardization and Quality Control in February 1948. The great statesman has beautifully summed up the importance of standardization.

The basic principles on which procedures and practices are based had their origin in the United Kingdom, where the first national standardization movement started as early as 1901. Thereafter, procedures have been continuously developed, modified and improved till considerable similarity is achieved.

A systems perspective is essential in understanding sustainability. The system is envisioned in its broadest sense i.e., from the individual farm to the local ecosystem and to communities affected by this farming system both locally and globally. An emphasis on the system allows a longer and thorough view of the consequences of farming practices on both human communities and the environment. A systems approach gives us the tools to explore the interconnections between farming and other aspects of our environment.

Towards Sustainability

Sustainability means preserving human life on Earth. Meeting human needs is thus vital in creating a sustainable society. It follows that one of The Natural Step’s principles of sustainability is to meet human needs worldwide.

2.1 Definition and Key Concepts of Sustainable Aquaculture

Aquaculture, the practice of farming aquatic organisms, has become an essential component of global food production. As the demand for seafood increases, the sustainability of aquaculture practices is critical to ensuring long-term ecological, economic, and social benefits. This essay explores the definition and key concepts of sustainable aquaculture, emphasizing its importance, guiding principles, and the strategies employed to achieve sustainability.

Definition of Sustainable Aquaculture

Sustainable aquaculture refers to the development and management of aquaculture systems that meet the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. It involves balancing the economic viability, environmental health, and social equity of aquaculture practices. Sustainable aquaculture aims to:

1. Protect and Restore Ecosystems: Minimize environmental impacts and enhance ecosystem services.

2. Support Economic Viability: Ensure the profitability and resilience of aquaculture operations.

3. Promote Social Responsibility: Foster equitable access to resources, benefits, and opportunities for all stakeholders.

Diverse soil and climatic conditions prevailing in different parts of the country offer scope for cultivation of a variety of crops in India. Around 250 crops either cultivated or grown under natural habitat are used for vegetable purpose. The crops and varieties vary in their soil and climatic requirements, cultivation practices, resistance to pests and diseases, quality etc.

Considering the climatic conditions for growing vegetable crops and for evolving zone wise technologies and recommendations, the entire country is divided into eight agro- climatic zones under the All India Co-ordinated Research Project (Vegetable Crops) as given below:

Table: Agro-climatic zones and states under each zone

Diverse soil and climatic conditions prevailing in different parts of the country offer scope for cultivation of a variety of crops in India.  Around 250 crops either cultivated or grown under natural habitat are used for vegetable purpose.  The crops and varieties vary in their soil and climatic requirements, cultivation practices, resistance to pests and diseases, quality etc.

Considering the climatic conditions for growing vegetable crops and for evolving zone wise technologies and recommendations, the entire country is divided into eight agro-climatic zones under the All India Coordinated  Research Project (Vegetable Crops) as given in Table 1.

Due to continuous pressure on our food security even after independence, the cultivation has been expanded to marginal and sub marginal lands that are prone to different types of erosion. Though the rainfed farming is based on the erratic and uneven rainfall, it contributes nearly 50% food grain, 90% oilseeds and pulses and 65% cotton production.

Glutaraldehyde shall be chosen for the disinfections processes after the disposal of the carcass, subsequent to the post- mortem (however, it is carcinogenic in nature).