eChapters

Galactometer: It is an instrument used for recording the specific gravity of the milk (Plate 306).

Galactose: It is an aldohexose sugar obtained by hydrolysis of lactose. Galactose is a monosaccharide and has the same chemical formula as glucose, i.e., C6 H12 O6 . It is similar to glucose in its structure, differing only in the position of one hydroxyl group. Due to this difference galactose possess different biochemical properties to glucose (Plate 307).

Galactosidase: An enzyme (actase) that hydrolyzes a galactoside. β-Galactosidase, commonly known as lactase, is an enzyme responsible to hydrolyze lactose (Plate 308).

Galactoside: A glycoside that yields galactose on hydrolysis. A galactoside is a glycoside containing galactose. The H of the OH group on carbon-1 of galactose is replaced by an organic moiety (Plate 309).

Galactosyl: A glycosyl radical C6 H11 O5 that is derived from galactose.

Definition of Host Plant Resistance (HPR)
Those characters that enable a plant to avoid, tolerate or recover from attacks of pathogens under conditions that would cause greater injury to other plants of the same species.
or
Those heritable characteristics possessed by the plant which influence the ultimate degree of loss done by the disease.
or
The inherent ability of an organism (i.e., the crop plant) to resist or withstand the pathogen is called resistance
Classification of Resistance
Each plant species is affected by hundreds of kinds of pathogen. Frequently a single plant is attacked by hundreds of individuals of a pathogen. Yet, those plants survive which are resistant, adapting a number of mechanisms classified variously.
1. Based on existence
a. Preformed
When the resistance is already present in the plant even I the absence of the pathogen, it is known as preformed, axenic or passive

The relentless march of urbanization, coupled with the growing uncertainties of a changing climate, casts a long shadow over the water security of our cities. Unlike their rural counterparts, urban areas face a distinct and often amplified set of challenges when drought strikes. The intricate web of municipal water supply, the concentrated demands of industry and commerce, and the sheer density of population render urban centers particularly vulnerable to the cascading impacts of water scarcity. When the taps run dry or restrictions tighten, the repercussions extend far beyond parched lawns and wilted gardens, impacting public health, economic stability, and the very fabric of urban life This chapter serves as an entry point into the critical field of urban drought management. We will delve into the unique characteristics that distinguish urban droughts from their rural counterparts, highlighting the interconnectedness of water systems and the amplified socioeconomic consequences within city limits. We will explore the increasing frequency and intensity of these events, driven by both natural climate variability and

The green pepper or chilli is reported to be the native of tropical America (Thompson and Kelly, 1957). This was widely cultivated in Central and South America in early times and was unknown in Europe prior to the discovery of America. The chilli belongs to the family Solanaceae and genus Capsicum. Only four species are under cultivation, out of which the cultivation of the two, Capsicum pendulum and Capsicum pubescens, are restricted to South and Central America. The other two, Capsicum annuum and Capsicum fruitescens are commercially cultivated throughout the world. Capsicum annuum is the most commonly cultivated species and all green chillies in the market and most dry chillies belong to this group. Most of the small and highly pungent chillies belong to Capsicum fruitescens.

1. Ammonia Nitrogen by Distillation Method
Method I (For Animal Feeds)
Reagents
    1.    Mangnesium oxide (carbonate free)
    2.    Standard sodium hydroxide 0.25 N
    3.    Standard sulphuric acid 0.5 N
    4.    Methyl red indicator

Weigh accurately 2 to 4 g  of the prepared sample. Shake it with water and filter. Wash the residue thoroughly with water. Transfer the filtrate to the distillation flask and dilute to about 200 ml with water. Add about 5 g of the magnesium oxide, Connect the flask to the condenser by means of the connecting bulb tube and distill about 100 ml of liquid into the receiver containing standard sulphuric acid and methyl red indicator solution, Titrate the contents of the receiver with the standard sodium hydroxide solution. Carry out a blank determination using all reagents in the same quantities but without the material to be tested.

1. Cattle
2. Buffaloes
3. Sheep
4. Goat
5. Swine
6. Camel
7. Rabbit
8. Poultry

Animal husbandry

Animal husbandry is the branch of science concerned with the care and breeding of domestic animals such as cattle, hogs, goat, sheep and horses.

India supports nearly 20% of the world livestock and 16.8% human population with a land area of only 2.3%. India leads in cattle and buffalo population and has world’s second largest goat and third largest sheep population. As per the 19^th Livestock census (2012) cattle (191 millions), buffalo (109 m), Sheep (65 m), goats (135 m), pigs (10.29m), camels (0.4 m) and poultry (729.2 m) population was reported in India. The total livestock population has decreased by about 3.33% over the previous census. India’s milk production increased from 43 million tonnes in 1983 to 155.5 million tonnes in 2015-16 (annual growth of 6.27%) and stands first in milk production in world.. The egg production is around 82.93 billion during 2015-16. The per capita availability is around 66 eggs per annum. The poultry meat production is estimated to be 3.26 million tonnes. Wool production (43.6 million Kgs) and meat production is 7.0 million tonnes in 2015-16.

Southern Leaf Blight

Helminthosporium maydis (Syn: H. turcicum)

Economic Importance

• The first epidemics of the Southern corn leaf blight also known as Maydis leaf blight took place in the USA in 1970.
• A highly virulent strain called Race T appeared on maize hybrids with Texas male sterile cytoplasm.
• The disease development was related to the growing of maize with T-cytoplasm on large areas.
• Since 1990 the use of cultivars with T male sterile cytoplasm has been forbidden in selection.
• Presently, the cultivars with M and C types of sterility are used.

Introduction

Some historians of agriculture believe that it was women who first domesticated crop plants and there by initiated the art and science of farming. While men went out hunting in search of food, women started collecting seeds from the native flora and began cultivating those of interest from the point of view of food, feed, fodder, fiber and fuel. This view is strengthened by the fact that women have been traditionally seed selectors. Even today this tradition has continued in many parts of the developing world. Women have played and continue to play a pivotal role in the conservation of basic life support system such as land, water, flora and fauna. They have protected the health of the soil through organic recycling and promoted crop security through the maintenance of varietal diversity and genetic resistance. In many remote areas agriculture is largely in hands of women. Men tend use to go to towns and cities in search of salaried jobs for fulfillment of family income. Therefore, without total intellectual and physical participation of women, it will not be possible to popularize alternative systems of land management for shifting cultivation, arrest gene and soil erosion, and promote the care of the soil and the health of economic plants and farm animals. Women also tend to look at problems in their totality from the sowing of the crop to its ultimate utilization either as food, feed or raw material for industry. Since they are usually incharge of marketing, they generally possess a clear understanding of market preferences and prejudices. Therefore, for an economically and ecologically sustainable agriculture the involvement of women farmers and farm women (agriculture farmers with and without assets) in the process of modernization of farming practices and village industries is absolutely essential. Horticulture is a major part of Indian agriculture, natural foods of man, fruits and vegetables provide protective nutrients like vitamins and minerals besides, some high quality sugars, proteins, oils and fats. Although belated, their importance has now been recognized in India not only to provide the much needed balanced nutrition and gainful occupation to our populace but also to develop viable internal and export trade. Fruits like banana, mango and minors fruit like mahuva, chironji, rayan etc. vegetables like potato being energy rich are considered prominent food crops e.g. banana can produce as high as 37 million calories per hectare. Unfortunately the component of fruits and vegetables in Indian diet is hardly six percent which should be raised at least five times so that the per capita per day consumption becomes 85 g. fruits, 75 – 125 g. leafy vegetables 85 g. other vegetable and 85 g. roots and tubers. To achieve this present production of fruits and vegetables would need to be pushed up considerably by increasing production levels and the area under fruits and vegetables would need to be pushed up considerably by increasing production levels and the area under fruits and vegetables (Lata and Singh, 2010).

1. INTRODUCTION

During fermentation, the fruit wines have to be monitored for different parameters to know the progress of fermentation and to control the quality of the finished products. It is essential to maintain the quality of the products, for which it is necessary to keep a complete record of wine fermentation. One such form is the fermentation control record or fermentation logbook, which is kept to monitor and record fermentation progress. It includes the name of fruit, variety, original characteristics of juice/pulp, amelioration, tank number, inoculum type and quantities, sampling time, date of start of fermentation and completion. It should also have daily record of temperature of fermentation, total soluble solid or ^oBrix reading, titrable acidity and volatile acidity, racking time/date and other comments on the fermentation. Fermentation control records should be completed and all new wines be entered in the bulk wine book inventory, the annual supplemental records can be kept in a file entitled, for example ‘Vintage season 2018’.

Imagine the lifeblood of a nation’s energy grid thinning to a trickle. This is the stark reality when prolonged droughts grip regions heavily reliant on the oncemighty force of hydroelectric power. While the allure of clean, renewable energy from flowing water has positioned hydropower as a cornerstone of electricity generation globally, its dependence on a consistent and abundant water supply renders it exceptionally vulnerable to the increasingly frequent and intense droughts sweeping the planet. This chapter embarks on a critical exploration of the intricate and often strained relationship between these two forces: the essential need for water in sustaining hydroelectric power and the devastating impact of its absence during drought conditions Moving beyond a simple definition, we will delve into the multifaceted ways in which droughts cripple hydroelectric facilities, from dwindling reservoir levels that starve turbines to the cascading effects on energy security, economic stability, and ecological balance. We will traverse the globe, examining compelling case studies from drought-stricken regions, revealing the tangible consequences for communities and industries. Furthermore, this chapter will unpack the complex interplay of factors that exacerbate

3.1 INTRODUCTION

A nursery is a place, where seedlings, saplings, trees, shrubs and other plant materials are grown under intensive care and maintained until they are ready for final transplanting in the main field. The importance of the best quality planting material as an initial investment is a well-realized factor for persons engaged in horticulture field. So, nurseries have great demand for the production of plants, bulbs, rhizomes, suckers and grafts. But in general, good quality and assured planting material at reasonable price is not available in most of the cases. Nursery is the basic need of horticulture. Plant propagation techniques and practices is the core of horticulture nurseries. The planting materials for horticultural plantations are raised from seeds and vegetative parts. The difficulty of procuring seeds and their rising cost makes it necessary to find means to increase seedling survival and growth.

10.1 INTRODUCTION

‘Tissue culture’ is commonly used as a blanket term to describe all types of plant cultures, viz., callus, cell, protoplast, anther, meristem, embryo and organ cultures (George, 1993). It relies on the phenomenon of cell totipotency. The different techniques of culturing plant tissues may offer certain advantages over traditional methods of propagation.

Growing plants in vitro in a controlled environment, with in-depth knowledge of the culture conditions and the nature of the plant material, ensures effective clonal propagation of genetically superior genotypes of economically important plants. Micropropagation has become an important part of the commercial propagation of many plants (George and Sherrington, 1983; and Zimmerman et al., 1986) because of its advantages as a multiplication system (Pierik, 1997 and Razdan, 2003). Several techniques for in vitro plant propagation have been devised, including the induction of axillary and adventitious shoots, the culture of isolated meristems and plant regeneration by organogenesis and/or somatic embryogenesis (Williams and Maheswaran, 1986; and Gautheret, 1985).

Tissue Culture is becoming as an alternative means to vegetative propagation of plants. In vitro growing plants are usually free from bacterial and fungal diseases. Virus eradication and maintenance of plants in virus free stage can also be rapidly achieved in cultures (Sharma, 2016).

Introduction

Nucleotide and protein sequences construct the core of Bioiformatics. These biological sequences form complex and very large datasets. Various Statistical techniques have been used for analysis and extraction of precise information form small as well as large biological datasets. Evolution and natural selection makes biological sequences redundant and statistically biased. Once the mechanisms involved in such biases have been characterized, their analysis and systematic investigation become valuable tools for use in predicting the properties of other biological sequences. This biased nature results in relative codon usage value among the synonymous codons or Relative Synonymous Codon Usage (RSCU) value. Codon usage variation within a single genome can be an important source of information about gene expression levels and events of horizontal gene transfer (Medigue et al., 1991). The analysis of codon usage patterns can be traced back to when first molecular sequence databases were being colleted (Grantham et al., 1981). In order to evaluate the codon and amino acid usage variation, multivariate analysis options like Correspondence Analysis, Principal Component Analysis, Cluster Analysis, Factor Analysis, Multidimensional Scaling and Eigenanalysis Ordination are available (Morrison et al., 1994). It is well established that codon usage by its nature is multivariate. These methods provide a low dimensional point representation of genes, where the proximity of gene specific points indicates (CoA) a similar codon usage of associated genes. Correspondence Analysis is an exploratory graphical approach that requires contingency tables and generates results in the form of tables, scattered plots and graphs. CoA can identify the major sources of variation in the dataset. The output from a CoA can be used to evaluate other aspects of genes, such as base composition, expressivity, aromaticity and location on the genome (Thiouse et al. 1997).

Orchard management within the framework of natural farming in India prioritizes sustainability, ecological harmony, and the use of native resources to sustain healthy and productive fruit trees. Unlike conventional horticultural methods, it avoids synthetic fertilizers, pesticides, and herbicides. Instead, it adopts an integrated approach focused on soil vitality, biodiversity, and resilience to climatic conditions.
The core of natural orchard practices lies in preparing the soil with organic inputs such as Jeevamrit, compost, cow dung, and mulch derived from crop residues or dry foliage. These enrich the microbial life in the soil and enhance its aeration, water-holding capacity, and fertility. Intercropping with legumes, vegetables, and medicinal herbs is encouraged to optimize land use and foster biodiversity, which helps in minimizing pest and disease outbreaks.
Mulching is essential around fruit trees to conserve soil moisture, suppress weed growth, and create a stable microclimate. The principle of “Waaphasa” or proper soil aeration is particularly emphasized, aiming to provide adequate oxygen to the roots without overwatering. Organic mulches like straw, dried grass, or sugarcane residue help maintain this balance effectively.
Pest and disease control is managed through natural bio-solutions like Agniastra, Neemastra, and Brahmastra—homemade preparations using cow urine, neem, and medicinal herbs. These are applied routinely to deter pests.
Eco-friendly methods such as installing bird perches, insect traps, and growing companion plants further support pest regulation.

Climate change affects livestock through heat stress, water scarcity, unstable feed supplies, altered disease patterns and extreme weather. This chapter examines how artificial intelligence supports climate-smart and sustainable animal husbandry. Machine learning, predictive analytics and IoT-enabled monitoring can optimize feeding, detect disease, assess welfare and improve the use of water, energy and other resources. Intelligent technologies can also assist in reducing greenhouse-gas emissions and developing adaptive production strategies. The chapter evaluates the contribution of AI to productivity, climate resilience and environmental responsibility while addressing problems such as insufficient data, limited infrastructure, implementation costs and ethical concerns. Future integration with sustainable agricultural frameworks is also discussed.

The whole plants or their parts have been used as source of medicine and health tonics both in medical and veterinary practice since time immemorial. Many of
the active ingredients in chemically manufactured drugs have been originally derived from plant components (e.g. pyrethroids). Despite availability of
the modern allopathic medicines, herbal medicines are still used on a very large scale. In the back drop of current global trade of herbal medicine and
intellectual property right (IPR) scenario, and to overcome side effects of ‘single golden molecular bullet’ drug technologies of twentieth century, there
is an upsurge of interest in traditional practices.

Introduction

Plastics has the versatile properties like light weight, durability, less expensiveness, and it is readily available for the consumers usage. Due to these diverse properties, the usage of the plastics is increasing day to day and their production has been increased drastically in the past 50 years (Cressey, 2016). At present, global plastics production has reached to 159 million tonnes. This diversified consumption has led to the production of enormous amount of plastic waste (Hahladakis et al., 2018) and their properties allows for long range transport in the ocean (Baalkhuyur et al., 2018). According to the Earth Action reports, nearly 68,64,299 tonnes of plastic waste will end up in nature due to imbalance between the plastics consumption and production. India is among 12 countries responsible for 52 % of the world mismanaged plastic waste (Plastic Overshoot Day: Report 2023).

Marine litter occurrence and impacts are common in worldwide marine systems (Bhattacharya and Khare, 2019) and they are degraded into micro sized particles called microplastics through a various physical, chemical and biological processes such as U-V light, wind and ocean currents (Solomon and Palanisami, 2016). Microplastics are < 5mm in size and are further divided into large and small microplastics of size 1–5 mm and 20 µm–1 mm, respectively (Loder and Gerdtz, 2015). Microplastics are classified into 2 categories: i) primary microplastics, intentionally produced as small sizes, used in cosmetics, microfibers from clothing, fishing nets, and their shape, size, colour, and chemical composition may vary depending upon the products. ii) Secondary microplastics are the tiny particles including fibres, fragments formed by the degradation or breakdown of larger plastics particles due to the UV rays from sunlight oxidation process. These particles are generated from the plastic films, accidentally or intentionally discarded fishing ropes and nets, plastic bottles and plastic bags etc. (Andrady, 2011).

Traditional livestock diagnosis is often reactive and may identify disease only after clinical symptoms become visible. This chapter introduces deep-learning methods for automated health monitoring, early disease detection and predictive analytics. Models analyse images, videos, body temperature, heart rate, activity patterns and historical health information. Convolutional neural networks extract visual features and classify diseases, while LSTM networks identify patterns in time-dependent physiological and behavioural data. Multimodal fusion improves the reliability of predictions by integrating different data sources. IoT-connected systems can generate real-time warnings and support timely intervention. The chapter compares deep learning with conventional approaches and evaluates accuracy, recall, false-negative rates and practical deployment.

11.1 Introduction

The application of greenhouse in agriculture is vast. Greenhouses are used for growing flowers, vegetables, fruits, transplants and varieties of certain crops in a controlled environment which is appropriate for the plants. The edible flowers are served in some good restaurants to grow them precise calculation is required. Sensor network can help to monitor and automate the activities in greenhouse. The objective of this chapter is to discuss the development of sensor nodes to monitor the growth of flower plants through XBee and internet of things. The system comprises of three sections- sensor nodes, local server and main server. Sensor nodes communicate to local server with XBee and then local server communicates the same data to main server through IoT.Fig.11.1 shows the generalized block diagram, sensor node is to be implemented on each flower pot and communicating to local and main server.

The increasing concerns about dwindling biological resources globally led to the Convention on Biological Diversity in 1992. This convention for the first time, recognized sovereign rights of States over their biological resources and emphasized that access to genetic resources should be only for environmentally sound purposes and should be subject to national legislations. The access has to be on mutually agreed terms which inter-alia would include recognition of associated Traditional Knowledge of indigenous communities and equitable benefit sharing arrangements.

Taking cognizance of the provisions of the CBD, and to deal with extensive pressure on our biological resources, India has enacted an umbrella legislation called Biological Diversity Act-2002 (No. 18 of 2003), and also notified the Biological Diversity Rules-2004 for guidance and compliance by various stakeholders, including the Union and State Governments, Non-state sectors, and individuals. The Act aims at conservation of biological resources as well as facilitating access to them in a sustainable manner and through a just process. The salient features of this act are as follows (NBA, 2004).