eChapters

Section-A : Write True / False

Q.1 A random variable (r.v) is a real number x connected with the outcomes of a random experiment.

Q.2 In tossing of a balanced die at one time, the number coming on the upper most face of the die is a random variable x which takes any one out of 6 values taken as 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6.

Q.3 Let s be the sample space associated with a given random experiment. A real valued function defned on s and taking values in R (-∞,∞) is called one dimensional random variable.

Q.4 In general a n dimensional random variable is simply a function whose domain is S and whose range is a collection of n-tuples of real members (vectors in n-space).

12.1. Introduction

All soils invariably contain soluble salts. However, physico-chemical and biological soil properties start degrading when excessive amount of salts are accumulated in soil, particularly in rhizosphere, due to several anthropogenic activities and environmental conditions, and crop production is severely affected. Then we refer those soils as salt-affected soil.

The need of intensive agriculture to keep pace with the increasing world population for their food requirement necessitates to bring more agricultural land area under irrigation. However, irrigation system without taking enough drainage provision and poor water quality and its poor management may make the situation worst due to the development of salt-affected soils that ensue unproductive soil and low crop yield. Crops grown on salt-affected soils suffer from high osmotic stress, nutritional disorders due to nutrient (N, Ca, K, P, Fe, Zn) deficiency, specific ion toxicities, poor soil physical conditions and as a consequence, a reduced crop productivity.

Although it is considered that the rocks and minerals on weathering lead to salt accumulation in the soil, but the salt-affected soils are not truly originated from the accumulation of such salts in situ. On the contrary, occurrence of salt-affected soils is due to receiving salts that come from other locations with water. Sea water inundation in coastal belt, irrigation with poor quality water including saline groundwater, poor drainage system, irrigation adopting unscientific ways leading to waterlogging, shallow water table etc. contribute heavily toward development of salt-affected soils. Salt-affected soils may occur under almost all climatic conditions. Their distribution, however, is relatively more extensive in the arid and semi-arid regions compared to the humid regions because of poor precipitation to leach soluble salt adequately. Since evapotranspiration greatly exceeds precipitation in these climatic conditions, the soluble salts move upward with water due to capillary action and are left behind on the surface soil and the rhizosphere, once water is evaporated. The commanding ions of accumulated salts in affected soil are sodium, potassium, magnesium, calcium, chlorides, sulphates, carbonates and bicarbonates. The nature and properties of salt-affected soils are so diverse that they require specific approaches for their reclamation and management. Therefore, it is necessary to know their origin, formation, nature, chemistry and properties in detail to classify them into groups for their proper management to maintain sustainable agriculture.

Levitical Law of Old Testament initially authorized meat animals for food of man who had to part the hoof and chew the cud. So man started eating the animals and their edible parts of animals who consume grass and other arable crops.  Examples were cattle, buffalo, sheep, goat, pigs, horses, deer, reindeer, yak, camel etc. Now poultry have become major meat producing species while rabbit, guinea pigs, various game animals and birds provides substantial meat. Advancement of knowledge on quality and safety enforced the man to evaluate and grade the live animals and carcasses for values decision in marketing.

3.1 INTRODUCTION

Geographic Information System handles large volumes of data. It is important to know the nature of data, instruments from which the data is collected and represented in computers. GIS data is either spatial or aspatial. Data is an important component in GIS. Digital data are available for some projects. but for many projects, input data may not be available. Now-a-days, data is supplied by many government, private organizations and also available on internet. If data for a particular project is not available, then the user has to collect the data from satellite imageries, GPS and other instruments and maps from various sources.

Spatial Data

All locations in the earth surface are spatial data. Location of a city, location of a river, location of a lake are represented in earth by their latitude or longitude in global coordinate system or as x,y coordinate in Cartesian coordinate system. Spatial data consists of location, shape and size in earth. A village boundary is represented as a polygon in map. The village is having certain shape of irregular polygon with definite area. As all these are mappable , they are called as spatial data. But name of the village, revenue of a village and description about a village and called as non-spatial or aspatial data.

Effect of Air Pollutants on Plants
 
Elements of those air pollutants which accumulate in plants (S from SO2, heavy metals from anthropogenic emissions etc.) may be used for specific bio-indication of possible effects caused by these pollutants, and for mapping their spatial and temporal distribution. Measuring accumulated components in plants rather than directly in the environment, provides the dual advantages of an integrated rather than a momentary value, and of a biological content rather than a mere concentration (Stocker and Gluch, 1990).

1.    A farm is a

(a) Producing unit

(b) Consuming unit

(c) Both of a & b

(d) None of these

2.    Farm is a_________unit.

(a) Economic

(b) Social

(c) Decision making

(d) All of these

1. Land Degradation- Type, Factors, Distribution, Processes, and Impacts on Soil Productivity

A. Types of Land Degradation

1. Soil Erosion: Soil erosion, a pervasive form of land degradation, manifests through the detachment and transportation of soil particles by various agents like wind and water. Wind erosion is common in arid regions, where dry, loose soil is susceptible to being carried away by the wind. Water erosion, on the other hand, occurs through surface runoff and can lead to gully formation and the loss of fertile topsoil. This loss of topsoil directly impacts agricultural productivity by reducing nutrient availability and water retention capacity.

1. Introduction

Antioxidants are considered an important class of nutraceuticals which are associated with health improving properties. Antioxidants are compounds which when present in foods at concentrations lower than an oxidizable substrate, markedly delay or prevent the oxidation of substrate (Halliwell, 1999). They are increasingly applied in food systems to retard the oxidation process, particularly in lipid containing foods (Droge, 2002; Lee et al., 2004). The commercially available solutions to counter food oxidation are predominated by synthetic antioxidants such as butylated hydroxyanisole (BHA), butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT) and tertiary butyl hydroquinone (TBHQ), among others, which are increasingly rejected by consumers and legitimized by regulators due to long term health implications (Park et al., 2001). As a consequence, the development and utilization of natural antioxidants as alternatives to synthetic ones have attracted global interest among researchers.

The use of spices and herbs in foods was known since ancient times to modify or to improve the flavor. However, the antioxidant properties of only some of the spices have been recognized. Different spices and their extracts such as turmeric, ginger, fennel, rosemary, and sage, among others, are reported to possess very high antioxidant properties, owing to the content of biologically active compounds, which enables their food application (Madhavi et al., 1996). Exploitation of natural antioxidants in consumer goods is increasingly accepted and will gain momentum due to the rise of green consumerism. In this chapter, an attempt has been made to provide an insight into natural antioxidants and colors. Beginning with the source distribution of natural antioxidants, followed by review of extraction methods for their isolation from plant based matrices and bio-preservative properties in vegetable oils to delay rancidity. Lastly, a thorough collection of literature pertaining natural colors has been presented to potentiate the application of clean label ingredients in food systems. The application of natural antioxidants and colors in food products can vouch the food safety with value addition in terms of their nutraceutical properties.

6.1 Introduction

There are a variety of intrinsic and extrinsic fiber-optic sensors which use absorption spectroscopy indirectly for the detection of various chemical species. These include pH, metal ions, oxygen in water etc. In such sensors a suitable reagent is immobilized on a solid support. The support can be the core of the fiber or some optical material attached at the end of the fiber. Further it is optically transparent to allow transmission of the light signal from the interface and should remain inert to the chemical reaction being analyzed. The analyte (or the chemical species) when comes in contact of the reagent affects the absorption properties of the reagent. In other words, in these sensors, the reagent acts as a chemical transducer for analytes that are not directly measurable by optical techniques. Following conditions for the use of reagents in sensors must be met:

7.1 Introduction

There are numerous wavelength dependent phenomena that may be used to modulate the wavelength of incident light source. These are wavelength dependent absorption, luminescence, dispersion, interference and scattering. Wavelength modulated sensors use a broadband source, a wavelength modulator or measurand (i.e. analyte), a form of spectrometer (using prisms, gratings or interference filters), a detector (single photodiode or array) and signal processing unit. Silicon photodiode is cheap and can be used for detection but it limits the detection wavelengths to the region 400 to 1050 nm. The sensitivity or the resolution of the wavelength modulated sensor depends on the characteristics of the detector, the inherent resolution of the spectrometer, mechanical stability of the modulation unit and the spectrometer, and the capability of the signal processing unit. However, wavelength modulated sensors do not require any form of referencing like intensity modulated sensors. In intensity modulated sensors, loss in intensity occurs due to connectors and splices, microbending, mechanical creep and misalignment of light sources and detectors due to environmental effect. Further the fluctuations in light source can affect the performance of the sensor. Thus, for intensity modulated sensors one needs referencing to cancel out these losses. In some intensity modulated sensors two wavelengths are used. One wavelength is used to cancel out all of the losses while the second is used to sense the measurand.

Wavelength detection is relatively easy if the spectral changes result from changes in chemical indicator dyes, fluorescence, phosphorescence, or black-body radiation. In these cases the incident and emitted wavelengths are far apart and therefore detection is easy. If the spectral change occurs due to mechanical movement, then the wavelength filtering mechanisms must have sufficient resolvable spectral points. The reasons for using fluorescence in the fiber optic sensors are well known. Fluorescence is intrinsically more sensitive than absorbance and is more flexible in that a great variety of analytes and physical parameters are known to change the emission of particular fluorophores. The fluorescence based sensors utilize the change in the intensity, lifetime or colour of fluorescence as the affected parameter by the measurand. That means, any interpretable observation of fluorescence can be made the basis of a sensor. In this chapter we shall first describe luminescence phenomenon and then various physical and chemical fiber optic sensors based on wavelength modulation and fluorescence phenomenon.

Introduction

Barley is an important cereal crop grown all over the world and is used mainly for feed and malt purposes and little for human food. Barley is the world’s oldest grain, as evidenced by discoveries in ancient cities in the Middle East and North Africa. It has been cultivated for about 8,000 years, and today is the world’s fourth largest cereal crop. Considerable evidence is available that points to the role of barley as sustaining food source in the evolution of humans. Additionally, alcoholic beverages of various types and fermented foods prepared from barley are commonly referred to in the ancient literature. As other food crops (wheat, rice, corn and rye) became more abundant, barley was relegated to the status of “poor man’s bread”. In the United states, barley used as food is 1.5%, as animal feed 65% and in malt and alcohol production 30% (Newman and Newman, 2006). In 1991, barley used as food in European countries was even lower (0.3%) than the United States. In contrast, during the same time period food was the largest for barley in Morocco (61%), China (62%), India (73%), and Ethiopia (79%). However, current consumer interest in nutrition and human health may help restore barley’s status in the human diet. Nutritional qualities of barley have been known since ancient times. For example, Ajgaonkar 1972 described how ancient Indian physicians effectively stabilized type II diabetics some 2400 years ago. Treatment was remarkable simple and not really different from recommendations that are given to diabetic patients today, i.e., lose weight, change diet, and increase exercise.

The selection and management of ingredients are fundamental to producing consistent, safe, and high-quality ice cream. This chapter provides an overview of the principal ingredients used in ice cream mixes and explains their selection criteria, approximate composition, functionality, storage requirements, and handling practices. It considers dairy ingredients, sweeteners, stabilizers, emulsifiers, flavours, colours, inclusions, and other formulation components. Ingredient quality directly influences processing performance, sensory properties, shelf life, and product cost. The chapter also highlights incoming-material quality checks and common ingredient-related defects. By understanding ingredient functionality and quality specifications, manufacturers can improve formulation accuracy, process consistency, product performance, and overall manufacturing efficiency.

Introduction

Rice is grown in more than 100 countries in the world and is an important crop for nutritional security of large part of the population. World rice production in 2007 was approximately 645 million tones. Around 50 countries have an annual production of more than 1 million tones. Ninety percent of the total rice is produced in Asian countries, with two countries, China and India, growing more than half the total crop. Top ten rice producing countries are China, India, Indonesia, Bangladesh, Vietnam, Thailand, Myanmar, Japan, Philippines, and Brazil. In Bangladesh, Cambodia, Indonesia, Lao PDR, Myanmar, Thailand, and Vietnam, rice provides 50-80% of the total calories consumed. Major part of the rice is consumed locally where produced and only 6-7% of world rice production is traded internationally.

Soil is a dynamic, vital living natural resource. Soil health is the condition of the soil and its potential to sustain biological functions, maintain environmental quality, and promote plant and animal health. It is qualitative trait of soil. Healthy soil is the foundation for profitable, productive, and environment friendly agricultural systems.

Abstract

Elaboration of mycotoxins by several moulds in different agricultural commodities has been reported to be widespread. The mycotoxins are reported to cause variety of health hazards in different animals including Chicks, cow, horse, rat, Mouse, pig, rabbit, dog, including man. More than 150 species of moulds are reported to elaborate chemically and biologically diverse toxic metabolites. These mycotoxins  are known to induce variety of diseases commonly known as mycotoxicoses.The fungi which elaborate mycotoxins are diverse belonging to different groups of fungi.Mycotoxigenicity of these moulds not only differ among different genera but also among different species.  Some fungi such as Aspergillus flavus, A. terreus, Penicillium griseofulvum, P.expansum, P.nordicum, P.verrucosum, Fusarium acuminatum, F.culmorum, F. graminearum, F.moniliforme, F.oxysporum, F.solani, F. tricinctum and Cheatomium globosum are known to produce more  one  type of mycotoxin which differ in their chemical structure and biological activity.

Introduction 
India’s digital transformation over the past decade has emerged as a defining feature of its governance and developmental strategy, propelled by the ambitious Digital India initiative launched in 2015 by the Ministry of Electronics and Information Technology (MeitY). With a vision to transform India into a digitally empowered society and knowledge economy, the initiative seeks to harness the power of information and communication technologies (ICT) to make governance inclusive, efficient, transparent, and responsive. Digital India marks a paradigm shift in how public administration operates, embedding technology at the core of policy delivery, citizen engagement, and institutional coordination across sectors and tiers of government. Creating a robust and scalable digital infrastructure is at the heart of this transformation. Major projects like BharatNet aim to connect 2.5 lakh Gram Panchayats via high-speed optical fiber, of which over 1.5 lakh were connected by 2020. Simultaneously, establishing more than 3.7 lakh Common Service Centres (CSCs) has extended digital service delivery to rural and remote areas. These CSCs function as inclusive access points, offering health, education, agriculture, banking, and public utilities services in a culturally and linguistically localized format, catalyzing rural digital entrepreneurship and last-mile inclusion. India’s approach to digital governance extends beyond infrastructure to encompass citizen-centric digital services and platform-based public service delivery models. Platforms such as UMANG, eHospital, BHIMUPI, DigiLocker, eCourts, Tele-Law, and eWay Bills have simplified citizen interaction with the state, enhancing the ease of living and improving administrative efficiency. The Government eMarketplace (GeM) has transformed public procurement by making it more transparent, efficient, and accessible for small businesses and start-ups. The Jan Dhan–Aadhaar–Mobile (JAM) trinity has revolutionized welfare delivery by facilitating Direct Benefit Transfers (DBT) into verified bank accounts, eliminating intermediaries, and saving over ?1.7 lakh crore by 2020.

Introduction

Fisheries and Aquaculture remains to be an important source of food, nutrition, income, and livelihood to millions of people. Fish is an affordable and good source of animal protein, a good option to reduce hunger and malnutrition in the country. India has bountiful resources comprising inland, brackish and marine water along with diverse fish and shellfish species. Indian Fisheries sector evolved gradually over the years and became an important socio economic attribute for the nation. India is the third-largest fish and aquaculture producing country and accounts for about 16% of total inland and 5% of total global marine fish production respectively. In 2021-22, India’s total marine and inland fish production stood at 16.24 million metric tonne (MMT), which includes 12.12 MMT and 4.13 MMT from inland and marine sectors, respectively. The annual growth rate in the marine sector was observed at around 18.7 %, whereas inland sector achieved more than 7.76 % during 2021 22 ( Table 17.1).The fishery potential of the country has been estimated to the tune of 22.31 MMT out of which Marine fisheries potential is 5.31 MMT and Inland fishery potential is 17 MMT. (Table 17.3).

Marine fisheries activities are spread along the country’s long coastline (8118 km) and in the vast Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ 2.02 million km2). The inland resources are in the form of rivers and canals (0.19 million km), f loodplain lakes (1.0 million ha), ponds and tanks (2.43 million ha), reservoirs (3.15 million ha), brackish water (1.18 million ha), saline/alkaline affected areas (0.24 million ha), and such others etc., covering about 9 million ha, providing livelihood to 16 million (Table 17.2). In this direction sea cage culture may play an important role in rapid expansion of seafood production at global level. In present scenario, due to limited availability of fish fingerling we may not expand sea cage culture to the optimum level. Therefore, need of hour is to strengthen the available infrastructure and other needed backward and forward support system enhancing for fish seed production apart from developing market linkages with diversification of species.

There are six major classes of nutrients: carbohydrates, fats, fibre, proteins, minerals and vitamins. Water is not a nutrient but play important role in livestock industry. These nutrient classes can be categorized as either macronutrients (needed in relatively large amounts) or micronutrients (needed in smaller quantities). The macronutrients are carbohydrates, fats, fiber, and proteins. The micronutrients are minerals and vitamins.

The term minerals is used by nutritionists to refer to inorganic chemical elements, but is used by many other scientists to mean a homogeneous crystalline compounds. Mineral elements are not inert materials. Mineral elements may change valence states and are transferred from one chemical compound to another. Minerals are active participants in enzymatic reactions, have specificity of function, and are critical to life.

The hazardous toxic metals like cadmium (Cd), arsenic (As), mercury (Hg), lead (Pb), and chromium (Cr), which have detrimental health effects, are naturally discharged into the atmosphere in various ways viz., industrial wastes, anthropogenic sources, etc. Heavy metal pollution of the atmosphere has become a frightening ecological concern that has created serious threats to the ecosystem. These metals have been identified as group I, human carcinogens due to their persistence in the surroundings and bio-magnification in biological systems. Thus, the removal of heavy metals from the atmosphere becomes a serious matter from the biological and environmental point of view. In the past following techniques adoptedfor toxic heavy metals remediation were classified are bioadsorption, ion exchange, membrane filtration, flotation, and solvent extraction techniques.