eChapters

ABSTRACT

Cycas is the largest genus among cycads - the surviving remnants of an ancient line of plants of the early Mesozoic period. The IUCN has classified more than half of the 182 species of Cycadales as endangered, vulnerable or rare. The use of in vitro techniques could permit a way to conserve many of the endangered species. None of the in vitro studies has been successful in establishing a functional protocol for artificial propagation of cycads. The objective of the present investigation is to explore the possibilities of in vitro plant regeneration from megagametophyte explants of Cycas circinalis - the only species of Cycas grown in Kerala. Megagametophyte from the ovules of ten-year-old Cycas circinalis plant was used as explant. Standard tissue culture techniques were adopted for the in vitro culturing of the explant. The basal medium involved major salts of B5 and minor salts of MS media. Glutamine, casein hydrolysate, coconut water and megagametophyte extract were used as supplements. The plant growth regulators - Kn, BAP, 2iP, IAA, NAA and 2,4- D - were incorporated alone and in combinations. Highest percentage of shoot induction and highest average number of shoot buds per culture were observed in PGR combination involving Kn + BAP along with one of the auxins (2,4-D or NAA or IAA). Shoot buds developed did not show further growth even after one year. The protocol employed in the present investigation may lead to multiple shoot proliferation and help in large-scale propagation of Cycas circinalis.

Biological Diversity Act, 2002 was passed by Indian government in pursuance of Convention on Biological Diversity, 1993 The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) is a legally binding multilateral environmental agreement that has 194 contracting Parties (Countries) as its members with three objectives mentioned below:

1. Conservation of biological diversity
2. Sustainable use of the diversity and
3. Ensuring fair and equitable sharing of benefits of such use.

Introduction

Peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) consist of chiefly of lymphocytes and monocytes. Purified PBMCs are used in vitro to evaluate a variety of functions of lymphocytes viz; a) proliferation to mitogenic (PHA, Con-A) stimulation, b) monitoring of prior sensitization in antigen recall assays by scoring lymphocyte proliferation, c) immunophenotyping for surface markers as well as intracellular molecules in monocytes and lymphocytes etc. Activation of monocytes/macrophages by small molecules, cytokines and pathogen components can also be monitored. PBMCs can also be used for a variety of structural and functional studies for addressing issues in human immunology such as scoring for apoptosis and production of cytokines as well as other mediators in vitro.

Background information

Blood is a liquid mixture comprised of plasma, cells and proteins. The liquid portion, plasma, makes up half of the blood volume, and cells the other half. Isolation of lymphocytes is a common procedure in immunology and cell biology that involves separating and collecting lymphocytes.

Introduction
Consumer protection laws are designed to safeguard consumers’ rights, promote fair trade, and prevent businesses from exploiting or deceiving customers. Over the years, as markets have become more complex and products more sophisticated, the necessity for consumer protection has increased globally. India, as well as several Western countries, have established legal frameworks to protect consumers. This chapter delves into the Consumer Protection Act in India, comparing it with consumer laws in Western countries such as the United States, the United Kingdom, and the European Union. It aims to provide a comprehensive overview of the key features, enforcement mechanisms, and the role of consumer rights in economic growth and fairness.
Consumer Protection Act in India
Historical Background and Evolution
Consumer protection laws in India date back to the late 19th century with the Indian Contract Act, 1872, and later the Sale of Goods Act, 1930. However, dedicated consumer protection legislation did not emerge until the Consumer Protection Act of 1986, which aimed to protect consumers from unfair trade practices and inadequate services. The act established a framework for dispute resolution through consumer courts at the district, state, and national levels.
In 2019, the government repealed the 1986 Act and introduced the Consumer Protection Act of 2019, aiming to modernize consumer rights in line with contemporary market dynamics, especially in light of the growth of e-commerce.
Key Provisions of the Consumer Protection Act, 2019
The 2019 Act introduced several new provisions to address modern consumer challenges:

Objectives
• To explore the significance of word stress and its impact on pronunciation and meaning.
• To examine the role of intonation in conveying emotions, questions, and statements.
• To analyze different speech patterns in English and their practical applications.
• To discuss the composition of sounds in English, including vowel and consonant sounds, and how they form speech.
• To enhance students’ listening, speaking, and pronunciation skills through a deeper understanding of sound dynamics.
Introduction
The study of English sounds involves understanding how words are pronounced, the patterns they follow, and how these elements affect communication. Mastering the intricacies of word stress, intonation, and speech patterns enhances a speaker’s ability to communicate effectively and clearly in English. These components play a crucial role in conveying not just the literal meaning but also the speaker’s intent and emotions.
Overview of English Sounds
English sounds can be broadly categorized into vowels, consonants, and semivowels. Understanding these foundational elements is crucial before diving into stress, intonation, and pattern composition.

Animal husbandry contributes 30 percent of agricultural gross domestic products in India and hence remains an important livelihood activity to the growing population of India. Mixed and diversified farming provides significant profit to the farmers than either only with agricultural or livestock farming. One of the biggest challenges in animal production is to produce animal products for human consumption through sustainable technologies. In the southern districts of Tamilnadu, dairy farming, sheep and goat rearing and back yard poultry form the major livestock livelihood activities.

INTRODUCTION

Prediction of helminthic infections is impractical. The aim of any control programme must therefore, ensure that parasite populations do not exceed levels compatible with economic production. The parasitological monitoring (e. g. faecal egg counts or pasture sampling) at intervals, forecasting on the basis of meteorological data and computer simulation may provide an alternate approach to control parasitic infection (Brunsdon, R. V. , 1980) in a given geographical area. The most common gastrointestinal parasite prevalent throughout the year in Meghalaya, India is Strongyle infection. This is because of the high rainfall and humidity prevalent in the North-Eastern region.

As the prevalence of this infection is mainly dependent on rainfall and humidity, study was being initiated to identify the relationship between rainfall/temperature and strongyle infection. The study would be also helpful in predicting/ forecasting the disease occurrence based on the prevailing pattern of rainfall in a particular location.

This protocol is designed for potato stem internodes on ZIG medium, but might work for leaf pieces as well.

Plant Material

Cut stem internode explants from 5-6-week-old in vitro plants (or leaf explants from 3-4-week-old in vitro plants) grown on 15 ml PROP in 25 x 150 mm test tubes.

Day 1

Streak out desired Agrobacterium strain on YEP + antibiotic to obtain a single colony. Grow at 28 C for 2 days. Alternatively, skip this step and use frozen stock for next step.

Day 3

Use a single Agrobacterium colony to inoculate 20 ml YEP + antibiotic in 250-ml flask. Grow overnight at 28 C with vigorous shaking (~200 rpm). Some Agrobacterium strains require an additional day to reach sufficient density.

ABSTRACT

To study the influence of season on explant collection, axillary buds from mature trees of three elite genotypes of tamarind viz., Sour pulped type, Red pulped type, and Sweet pulped type (Thailand) were collected monthwise from September, 2002 to August, 2003, sterilized properly and cultured in MS medium supplemented with BAP (1, 1.5, 2, 2.5 and 3 mgl^-1) + GA 0.5 mgl^-1 + NAA 0.1 mgl^-1. The studies revealed that, the bud break percentage was highly dependent on the season of explant collection. In case of Sour pulped type, bud break was recorded during the month of April, May and June. Maximum per cent bud break (50.00 per cent) was recorded in May and June but least number of days were required for bud break (12.33) in April month. In Red pulped type, the bud break was observed during February to June. The axillary buds collected and cultured during the month of February recorded the best results with respect to the per cent bud break (100 per cent) and least number of days taken for bud break (7.12 days). In Sweet pulped (Thailand) type, bud break was recorded during the months of February to June. The axillary buds collected and cultured in the month of may recorded the best results with respect to the percent bud break (87.50 per cent) but March showed least number of days for bud break. Nodal segments cultured on MS + BAP 2 mgl^-1 + GA 0.5 mgl^-1 + NAA 0.5 mgl^-1 gave maximum and early bud break in three genotypes, but sprouted shoots showed abscission of leaflets and died later on.

Of the 7 billion global population, about 800 million do not have enough food to eat and majority of the them live in developing countries. By 2050, the world population is estimated to reach 9 billion. Plant pests and diseases are responsible for losses of 20 to 40% of global food production. Due to increasing global trade and a changing climate, plant diseases pose a major threat to food security today than ever before. Agriculture will have to cope with weather fluctuations that can affect the survival, distribution and multiplication of plant pathogens apart from shift in pathogenic microbial flora. Emergence of new races of pathogen potentially threaten the production of food. To cite an example, migration of 13 -A2 clonal lineage of Phytophthora infestans from Europe, during 2013, devastating tomato and potato in India. Plant pathogens also impact on environment sustainability, forest health, recreational horticulture, human and animal health.

The science of plant pathology can play a much needed role in alleviating hunger and malnutrition through development of affordable solutions for devastating plant diseases leading to increase in food production. It hold promise to ensure quality produce by containing microbial invasions and toxin contamination of food crops. Plant Pathologists have an important role to play in meeting the food security need of the nation by developing technologies for ensuring proper crop health. There is an urgent need to produce more food per unit area for feeding rapidly increasing human population. We need to act ahead of pathogens in our efforts to ensure normal crop yields. Cutting edge biotechnologies such as CRISPR gene editing systems and RNA interference are being exploited to rapidly developed crop varieties having resistance to specific pathogen races.

Crop protection has come a long way from predominantly chemical based approaches to more environment friendly IDM technologies including green chemistry. There is a need to develop bio-intensive modules for management of diseases. Decision support system need to be developed for important diseases for their timely, more efficiently management. There is need to adopt information technology at a larger scale to facilitate quick dissemination of new crop protection solutions among the farmers and other stakeholders.

(A) Effect of Temperature
Introduction
Temperature is one of the most important physical factors affecting microorganisms. Bacteria are different from higher plants and animals in the lack of homeostatic mechanism and cannot regulate heat generated by metabolism and are, therefore, directly and readily affected by temperature. Over a limited temperature range, there is a two-fold increase in the rate of enzyme catalyzed reaction for every 10°C rise in temperature.
Bacteria may be divided into three major groups with respect to their temperature requirements: (i) Psychrophiles, those with optimum temperature between 0°C and 20°C; (ii) Mesophiles, with optimum temperature between 20ºC and 40°C and (iii) Thermophiles, with optimum temperature between 40°C and 80°C. Thermophiles are of two types: (a) Facultative thermophiles with an optimum temperature of growth between 45°C and 60°C and (b) Obligate thermophiles with optimum temperature above 60°C. Temperatures in the range between 50°C and 100°C are normally in the lethal range for bacterial cells and spores. The range of temperature preferred by bacteria is genetically determined, resulting in enzymes with different temperature requirements.
Each organism grows within a particular temperature range (i.e. cardinal temperature points). The minimum growth temperature is the lowest temperature at which growth of a species will occur. The highest temperature at which a species can grow is its maximum growth temperature, and a species grows fastest at its optimum growth temperature.  Time of exposure is a vital factor in assessing the

Introduction to Right to Information
The Right to Information (RTI) is a fundamental democratic principle that ensures citizens’ access to information held by public authorities. RTI empowers individuals to participate in governance, hold officials accountable, and enhance transparency. This chapter provides an in-depth exploration of RTI frameworks in India and compares them with systems in selected Western countries, highlighting legislative evolution, scope, operational mechanisms, and significant challenges faced in these systems.
Historical Background of Right to Information
Origins of RTI in Democratic Societies
The concept of RTI has roots in Enlightenment-era principles of transparency and democracy, where the belief that government decisions should be made in the public eye gained momentum. Sweden was the first nation to codify freedom of information in 1766, emphasizing that transparency is essential for a democratic society.
International Recognition of RTI
RTI gained international prominence with the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) in 1948, wherein Article 19 affirmed the right to freedom of expression and information. In 1966, the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR) further articulated this right, strengthening its recognition on the global stage.

The musculoskeletal system provides structural support, protects organs and enables movement. Diseases involving muscles, bones, joints, ligaments and tendons commonly produce lameness, pain, weakness, reduced mobility and deformity. This chapter presents general and special examination techniques for evaluating musculoskeletal abnormalities. Assessment includes observation of posture and gait, palpation of muscles and joints, evaluation of swelling, pain and abnormal movement, and examination of limbs and feet. Additional diagnostic procedures may be used to localize lesions. The chapter provides practical guidance for systematic examination and emphasizes accurate identification of affected structures to support diagnosis and appropriate clinical management.

Abstract

Himachal Pradesh is endowed with varied type of climate providing conditions to grow temperate and sub  tropical fruits. Persimmon (Diospyros kaki) appears to be readily adapted to wide range of climatic conditions and offer a good potential for diversification of fruit culture. Though it was introduced in Himachal Pradesh in early nineties by the European missionaries but it could not be established as commercial fruit crop. Persimmon cultivation suffers from lack of organized plantings, inadequate vegetatively propagated plant material, non-availability of suitable cultivars and standardization of various orchard management practices. Besides, problems of poor fruit set, heavy fruit drop, astringent nature and lack of sufficient knowledge regarding fruit maturity and marketing mired its cultivation. The efforts made in recent years to overcome the problems the fruit seems to be on the thresh hold of popularity and with diversification in the fruit culture this fruit has great future.

This chapter sheds light on a geohazard namely quicksand. Unlike other geohazards, it waits for its victims to cause hazard. Though discounted as a myth and also as a monster problem in Hollywood film stories, phenomenon of quicksand is real and could inflict life threatening dangers. Analyses of genetic causes, associated properties and locales of its occurrences indicate that more deaths might have resulted due to panic and drowning in waters than by quicksand itself. Based on these inferences, potential mitigation measures are presented in this chapter.

INTRODUCTION

Quicksand, referred as “pudhai manal” in Tamil, is one of the lesser known dangerous natural phenomena that cause death of human and other unsuspecting animals. It is a geohazard of different sort. It is different in a sense that it never “goes” anywhere like tsunami or causes hazard like flood or landslide or any other geohazard; but it waits for hapless victims; that is., it is harmless until human beings or other fauna step into the region of quicksand. It is commonly prevalent in many river beds and other locales near water bodies located amidst dense forests. Many a deaths occur due to quicksand but go unnoticed owing to its “non catastrophic” nature. It is also a geohazard less understood pertaining to causes of formation, potential to cause damage and occurrence (www.mythbuster.com). This chapter is an attempt to review the existing literature on this geohazard for better understanding.

In last few decades awareness about social and environmental issues has been increased. Agriculture is one of basic enterprise that has major role in these two issues . Organic agriculture is one of the agriculture production system that not only supportive to the environment but also sensitive to the social issues like employment, health, migration etc. Definitions given by two international organizations also verify this concept.

Morphological characteristics

The plant is a monoecious undershrub that grows up to 3.5 metres tall and has serrated leaves and stiff branches that emerge from the root. Lower branches feature big, typically broad, elliptical, three- to five-lobed leaves with rounded bases, while above branches have small, lanceolate leaves. Petioles range in length from 5 to 15 cm.

Floral characteristics

The flowers are unisexual. The calyx of male flowers is globose, 2.5 mm long, four to five partite, glabrous or slightly pubescent, membranous, finely mottled with a disc of six glands, and glabrous or slightly pubescent. There are approximately 20 stamens in each flower. Sepals are ovate-lanceolate and glabrous, and the disc is roughly 2.5 mm in diameter in female flowers. Fruit is a three-lobed capsule that is around 8–13 mm long and hairy. Seeds contain an oily endosperm and are speckled and smooth. Flowers bloom in January–February, followed by fruit that mature a month later.

Distribution

The species grows in tropical and subtropical places with rainfall of around 1000 mm, such as the Himalayan foothills, Kashmir to the Khasi hills, and especially in the Vindhyas southward. In North and East Bengal, Chhota Nagpur, and peninsular India, it is fairly frequent.