eChapters

True/False

Q.1.    A set containing all possible outcome of a trial in a study is known as “Sample space”.
Q.2.    If we are interested in observing the blood type of a child born in a hospital then sample space may be a set S is of the form S = {A, B, AB, O}.
Q.3.    If outcomes are continuous in nature, the sample space is specified as an interval that contains all possible outcome values.
Q.4.    When the occurrence of one event excludes the occurrence of other events, the events are said to be “Mutually exclusive events”.
Q.5.    In case of testing the type of blood of a newly born baby in a hospital, the blood types A, B, AB, O or gender (male, female) are exclusive events.

In some experiments the result can be predicted with certainty. For example, the bulb will stop glowing when switched off, the evolution of hydrogen gas when zinc reacts with dilute hydrochloric acid. Such phenomenon where the result can be predicted with certainty is known as deterministic phenomenon. But in some experiments the result cannot be predicted with certainty. For example, Sales of a firm, profit made by a company, yield of a crop, etc. Such phenomenon where the result cannot be predicted with certainty are known as probabilistic or random phenomenon. Such phenomena are frequently observed in economics, business, agriculture, social science, biology, etc., and in our day to day life.

The theory of probability is a very important branch of statistics which provides a numerical measure of uncertainty.

A. Definitions of probability

1. A probability relies on having an understanding of the theoretical model defining the set of all possible outcomes of a trial; we evaluate the probability solely on the basis of this model, without recourse to performing the experiment at all. It is often called an a priori probability. So, for example, we know that there are two equally likely outcomes when an unbiased coin is tossed: either a head or a tail. This is the model from which we can deduce that the probability of a defined event, obtaining a head, say, is 1/2 = 0.5.

2. The next approach to defining a probability, and the one commonly used in statistical inference, is to regard a probability as the proportion of times a particular outcome (the event) will occur in a very large number of ‘trials’ or ‘experiments’ performed under similar conditions.

The result of any one trial should be independent of the result of any other trial, so whether or not the event occurs in any one trial should not affect whether or not the event occurs in any other trial.

7.1 Introduction

The theory of probability has its origin in the games of chance related to gambling such as throwing a die, tossing a coin, drawing cards from a pack of cards etc. Jerame Cardon (1501-1576), an Italian mathematician was the first man to write a book on the subject entitled “Book on Games and Chance”, which was published after his death in 1663. The systematic and scientific foundation of the mathematical theory of probability was laid in mid-seventeenth century by two French mathematicians B. Pascal (1623-1662) and Pierre de Fermat (1601-1665).

Introduction

Food is the most vital prerequisite for sustenance of human life and provides adequate nutrients for the metabolism. Recently several hypothesis supports that, beyond meeting nutritional needs, they play beneficial roles in improving health, and minimize the risk of illnesses (Roberfroid, 2000a). In this way, a novel term “functional food” was introduced and plays an outstanding role in improving the overall conditions of the human body (e.g. pre- and probiotics), lessening the threat of some ailments (e.g. cholesterol-lowering products), and also as therapeutics for several diseases (Roberfroid, 2000a, Roberfroid, 2000b, Mollet and Rowland, 2002).

Recently throughout the world, an extensive array of functional foods were developed which includes prebiotics, probiotics, synbiotics, foods supplemented with anthocyanins, phytosterols, isoflavones, antioxidants, and fat, sugar and salt-reduced foods. Amongst them, probiotic functional food has exerted beneficial effects on the health and is comprised of both probiotic dairy foods and probiotic non-dairy foods. The demand for dairy probiotic foods are increasing as it attributes to the beneficial health effects on the host by improving the survival of gastrointestinal microflora, production of bioactive compounds and prevention of lactose intolerance. Consequently, production of these foods is a significant research importance for both food manufacturing units and research institutes.

Probiotics are the important ingredients for foods with a “healthy” image. It could be combined with other beneficial ingredients or simply used to supplement the natural functional qualities of whole foods. The amalgamation of probiotic bacteria with nutrient rich foods, like dairy products, will have the additional value of improving consumer nutrition.

Recent awareness of consumers towards innovative probiotic fermented food products containing friendly bacteria and healthier foods has coined the term functional foods. Food development in the world is taking place mainly in three strategic directions as functional foods, organic foods and national foods. Every year the global demand is increasing at the rate of 15–20 %.

Fermentation by newer technologies involves specific strain of lactic acid bacteria. This brings specific fermentation under controlled conditions resulting in a specific fermented product with enhanced organoleptic, nutritional and therapeutic qualities.

There are potential beneficial medicinal uses of probiotics for which research is limited and only preliminary results are available. Recent research on the molecular biology and genomics of Lactobacillus has focused on the interaction with the immune system, anti-cancer potential, and potential as a biotherapeutic agent in case of antibiotic-associated diarrhoea, traveller‘s diarrhoea, pediatric diarrhoea, inflammatory bowel diseases and irritable bowel syndrome (Ljungh et al., 2009). Studies of some probiotics tested in vitro on human epithelial cell lines have shown that they could block the adhesion of shiga toxin producing E. coli (Sherman et al., 2005). These are claimed to be health promoting and/ or disease preventing beyond the basic function of supplying nutrients. Probiotic foods are emerging as an important category of food supplements. Earlier workers have shown the inhibition of diarrhea caused by E.coli using probiotic lactic acid bacteria and yeast (Yan and Polk, 2006). Ratledge et al. (2002) have studied the biochemistry and molecular biology of lipid accumulation in oleaginous microorganisms.

In 1908, Metchnikoff, the father of modern Immunology, wrote “Prolongation of Life” and created the incredible ongoing revolution known as the “Probiotic Revolution”. He proposed that “Lactic Acid Bacteria” (LAB) could render a great service in the fight against intestinal putrefaction and might postpone and ameliorate old age. Till then today, some 95 years later, dozens of the worlds most brilliant minds carry on the astonishing work that has scientifically been proven to generate restorative and healing effects in the body.

In the late 19^th century, microbiologists identified microflora in the gastrointestinal (GI) tracts of healthy individuals that differed from those found in diseased individuals. These beneficial microflora found in the GI tract were termed probiotics. The term ‘Probiotics’ is originally a Greek word meaning ‘for life’. Parker (1974) for the first time used this word. He defined Probiotics as “organisms and substances, which contribute to intestinal microbial balance”. But the most accepted definition of Probiotics was given byFuller (1989). He redefined Probiotics as “a live microbial feed supplement, which beneficially affects the host animal by improving its microbial balance”. Fuller’s definition since been broaden to state “a probiotic is a mono or mixed culture of live microorganisms which, when applied to animal or man, affect the host beneficially by improving the properties of the indigenous microflora”. This definition stresses the importance of live microorganisms that improve the health status of either man or animal and that occur in the mouth, gastrointestinal tracts (GIT), or upper respiratory or urogenital tracts (Havenaar et al, 1992).

To understand how probiotics work, it is important to understand a little about the physiology, microbiology of GI tract and the digestive process. The digestive process begins as soon as food enters the mouth and to stomach, the microbes present in the GI tract have the potential to act in a favourable, a deleterious or a natural manner. Microbes in small intestine and in large intestine complete the digestion process.

Abstract

Nutraceuticals have potential to be used as food supplement, preventive medicine and the growing evidence points in the direction that certain foods fight and or prevent against diseases. The development of next generation nutraceutical “super foods” or products consist of value-addition in the traditional natural diets.The word Nutraceuticals combine ‘nutrition’ and ‘pharmaceuticals’ to mean that they can be used as preventive drugs or food supplements. The increase in knowledge about the immune response unveils the fact that besides immunological disorders and infections the outcome of many other diseases like diabetes, hypercholesterolemia, rheumatoid arthritis, etc. can be modified by modulating Immune response. Hence, the efficient immunomodulators can be employed to prevent or cure the diseases as immunotherapeutic agents. The most acceptable alternative therapeutic agents are the edible sources. Hence the researchers shifted towards formation of nutraceuticals or foods acting as medicine, a concept which was given by Hippocrates long back.

Probiotics and prebiotics are widely used in animal nutrition to promote gut health, enhance immune function, and improve production performance. Probiotics are live microorganisms (e.g., Lactobacillus, Bifidobacterium, Bacillus, and Saccharomyces) that confer health benefits when administered in adequate amounts. Prebiotics, such as fructooligosaccharides (FOS) and mannanoligosaccharides (MOS), are non-digestible compounds that stimulate the growth of beneficial gut microbes. The optimal supplementation levels vary among speciesbased on their physiology, diet, and production goals.
Cattle
Probiotics
Lactobacillus acidophilus, Bifidobacterium bifidum, Enterococcus faecium,and Saccharomyces cerevisiae are commonly used.
Dose
Lactobacillus spp.: 1 × 109– 1 × 1010 CFU/head/day.
Saccharomyces cerevisiae: 5–10 g/head/day or 108– 109 CFU/g feed.
Prebiotics
MOS and FOS are used to improve gut integrity and nutrient absorption.

1. Introduction
Aquaculture is a rapidly expanding industry, playing a crucial role in addressing the global demand for high-quality protein sources as wild fish stocks face depletion. With aquaculture production on the rise, ensuring the health and productivity of farmed fish has become increasingly important. The health of the fish gut is central to achieving these objectives, as the gut is responsible not only for nutrient digestion and absorption but also for maintaining a strong immune defense. A well-functioning gut leads to better growth performance, reduced disease susceptibility, and improved overall fish welfare.
However, maintaining optimal gut health in aquaculture systems presents challenges. The intensive nature of fish farming can lead to stressors that compromise the gut environment, including changes in water quality, fluctuating diet compositions, and exposure to pathogens. Gut health issues often manifest in poor feed conversion ratios, slower growth, and higher mortality rates, all of which negatively impact aquaculture productivity and sustainability. Therefore, there is a growing focus on finding innovative and natural solutions to improve the gut health of farmed fish.
In recent years, the use of probiotics and prebiotics in fish nutrition has gained significant attention as an effective and eco-friendly strategy to modulate gut microbiota and enhance fish health. These functional feed additives are considered a natural alternative to antibiotics and other pharmaceuticals, which have historically been used to manage diseases and promote growth in aquaculture but come with risks of antibiotic resistance and environmental contamination.

Introduction

The term probiotic is derived from Greek and means ‘for life’ as opposed to antibiotics which means ‘against life’. The history of probiotics began with the consumption of fermented foods which was first observed in ancient Greeks and Romans [1]. The term, probiotic, as is used today was first used by Parker in 1974. Parker defined ‘probiotic’ as substances and organisms which contribute to intestinal microbial balance. In 1989, the term was modified further by Fuller. Thus, probiotic is a live microbial supplement which affects the host’s health positively by improving its intestinal microbial balance. This definition was broadened to include mono or mixed culture of live microorganisms which benefits animals or man by improving the properties of the indigenous microflora [2]. Some authors have interpreted probiotics as microbial cell preparations or components of microbial cells that have a beneficial effect on the health and well-being of the host.

Introduction

Let food be thy medicine and medicine be thy food- the age-old quote by Hippocrates, is certainly the tenet of today. Microbial cultures have been used for millenniums in food and alcoholic fermentations and in the past century have undergone scientific scrutiny for their ability to prevent and cure a variety of diseases. Later it became popular in improving human and farm animal nutritive values and recently in aquaculture also. The growing interest in the understanding the role of food in human health has moved from its primary role as a source of energy to the subtle action of biologically active food components on human health. Henceforth functional foods or nutraceuticals are of great demand in present time. The growing scientific evidence suggests that the food supplements containing beneficial bacteria can provide an array of benefits to the host. Now a day’s probiotic fermented foods are in great demand due to the awareness of beneficial aspects of probiotics among people. Several industries focused on the improvement of conventional fermented foods scientifically in order to fetch good market for their products. Particularly, animal feed companies and researchers have been looking for alternative products and strategies that can help to maintain animal gut health in order to prevent or reduce the prevalence of pathogens in the food chain. After understanding the mechanism and beneficial aspects of probiotics in detail at molecular level in earlier chapters, now it is relevant to discuss the applied part of probiotics. In this chapter, commercial importance of probiotics and probiotics derived products at industrial level are emphasized.

Introduction

Ruminants are provided with a microbial ecosystem in the gastro-intestinal tract which helps in the bioconversion of lignocellulosic feeds into volatile fatty acids which are utilized by the animal as a source of energy. This microbial biomass is also helpful in synthesis of microbial protein and B-complex vitamins for the host animals. Any disturbance in the microbial balance may affect the performance of the animal adversely and any improvement in the microbial environment may lead to the improvement in productivity of the animal. A number of chemical feed additive like hormone, antibiotics have been used to improve the performance of the animals. But due to residual left over in the animal products and risk of creating disease, resistance against antibiotics, the use of these chemical feed additives have been discouraged and even banned in some countries. As an alternative microbial feed additive seems to be more natural; as it is not creating any new thing in GIT but it is merely restoring the normal and ideal flora in the digestive tract to its full capacity.

Introduction

During the first 50 years of the 20th century, scientific focus was on the identification of essential elements and their role in the prevention of various dietary deficiency diseases. This emphasis on nutrient deficiencies or “undernutrition” shifted dramatically, however, during the 1970s when diseases linked to excess and “overnutrition” became a major public health concern. “Let food be thy medicine and medicine be thy food”, the age old quote by Hippocrates is the ideology of today’s health conscious population. Eli Metchnikoff, the Russian Nobel prize winner was the first one to recognize the beneficial role of selected bacteria on gastrointestinal tract of humans. Subsequently the “Theory of Longevity” by Metchnikoff was correlated with prolonged youth and a healthy old age, observed largely in Balkan peasants of those times, who used cultured milks in their diet (Kaufmann, 2008). Since then, the quest continues for understanding the role of wide range of food components and nutrients in enhancing health or preventing chronic diseases. The research in this field has resulted in a plethora of new labels for pro-, pre- and synbiotics.

Abstract

The gut microbiota, microbe population living in the human large intestine is generally associated with various metabolic functions and it influences health and well-being. Taking into account the major role gut microbiota play in the normal functioning of the body and the different functions it accomplishes, experts nowadays consider it as an “organ”. However, it is an “acquired” organ, as babies are born sterile; that is, intestine colonisation starts right after birth and evolves as we grow. Each of us has a unique microbiota, as the fingerprints, it always fullfils the same physiological functions and they have a direct impact on our health. Gut microbiota consists of a complex of microorganism species that live in the digestive tracts of animals and is the largest reservoir of microorganisms mutual to humans. Gut microorganisms benefit the host by gleaning the energy from thefermentation of undigested carbohydrates and the subsequent absorption of short-chain fatty acids. The most important of these fatty acids are butyrates, metabolised by the colonic epithelium; propionates by the liver; and acetates by the muscle tissue. The human body carries about 100 trillion microorganisms in its intestines, a number ten times greater than the total number of human cells in the body Guarner and Malagelada, 2003). Gut microbiota, particularly the probiotics, have beneficial effects on gastroenteritis resistance, blood lipids, antitumor properties, lactose tolerance and gastrointestinal immunity. Probiotics have role in reducing the risk of rotavirus-induced diarrhea and colon cancer. The survivability of any probiotic bacteria till a longer time in the gut can be enhanced by the supplementation of prebiotics. Prebiotics are non-digestible food ingredients that benefit the host by selectively stimulating the growth or activity of one or a limited number of bacteria in the colon. There are so many prebiotics which stimulate the growth and survivability of probiotic bacteria such as fructo-oligosaccharide (FOS), inulin, galacto-oligosaccharide (GOS), polydextrose (PDX), acacia gum (GUM), lactulose (LOS), lactitol etc. Many research studies have been done on above mentioned prebiotics. Mostly inulin-type fructans have been used as functional food ingredients. The prebiotics are known for reduction of disease risk such as constipation relief, suppression of diarrhea and reduction of the risks of osteoporosis, atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease associated with dyslipidemia and insulin resistance, obesity and possibly type-2 diabetes. Probiotics are beneficial microbes that confer a realistic health benefit on the host, which in combination with prebiotics, (indigestible dietary fibre/carbohydrate), also confer a health benefit on the host via products resulting from anaerobic fermentation. The combination of probiotics and prebiotics in a synbiotic might improve the survival of the bacteria crossing the upper part of the gastrointestinal tract, thereby enhancing their effects in the large bowel and immune-modulatory ability.

In 1907, the Russian Nobel laureate, Dr. Elie Metchnikoff, fascinated by the unusual longevity of Bulgarian farmers, consuming beneficial lactic acid bacteria by way of traditional fermented milk products, suggested that regular intake of friendly microbes could benefit human health. Although Dr. Metchnikoff ’s recommended bacteria for the purpose proved largely ineffective, the theory was carried forward with moderate success until the war on bacteria began because of the advent of sulfa drugs and antibiotics (Scott, 2012). However soon after their rampant use and the realization of the rapid spread of antimicrobial resistance, researchers turned yet again to ecological notions and the time was fertile for the advent of probiotics. By the 1980’s the term had stabilized both in medical and veterinary literature. The mid 1990’s witnessed a surge of exponential studies on probiotics, the definition of Probiotics emerged in 2001 and the years thereafter saw tremendous progress in the science of probiotics.

Almost simultaneous was the study on the study of the intestinal microbiota when Alfred Nissile demonstrated that transferring members of the human gut microbiota to healthy typhoid carriers helped in Salmonella being cleansed from their system (Nissle, 1916). It was then, that the importance of the gut microbes in prevention of infection became evident. What followed was the advent of culture independent, modern biotechnological tools for whole genome sequencing and the successful launch of two most ambitious projects - Human Microbiome project (Turnbaugh et al., 2007) and the Met Hit project (Metahit, 2009; Qin et al., 2010). They provided fascinating insights into the highly complex microbial ecosystem harboured by the human body. The term Microbiome (refers to the collective genome of our microbial inhabitants) had entered literature in 2001 and the concept of gut microbiota in maintaining overall health gained wider attention.

The increasing use of antibiotics in livestock and poultr y led to development of antibiotic resistant micro organisms and antibiotic residues in livestock products besides other side effects. These caused alarm bells ringing all over the world and by the end of June, 1999 majority of antibiotics as growth promoters in monogastric diets had been banned within the EU. The ban on use of antibiotic at sub therapeutic level in Europe and the potential for a ban in the United States have made scientists to seriously think of alternatives to antibiotics. In fact, the use of probiotics for farm animals was already stimulated by the findings of the Schwann Committee in 1969 which recommended that antibiotics in animal feeds should be restricted. However, the concept of probiotics gained momentum in later part of the last century. In recent years, with the public disapproval of using antibiotics in livestock and poultry production due to their residual effects in their products, there has been a greater emphasis on the use of probiotics in poultry.

Regeneration capacity of the soil is enhanced with the sowing of MVS which provides ideal condition for regeneration. It creates green cover / dry leaf cover in the top soil (35-40 cm height) which will facilitate the multiplication of inoculated beneficial microbes in the soil.

Multi Varietal seeds sowing techniques

MVS contains seeds of three to four crops belonging to each category viz., cereals, pulses oilseeds, nitrogen fixing green manures and spices and condiments. The seeds of above crops may be mixed in different proportion based on their growth habit and seasonal requirement. For example in the summer the following mixture can be practiced with each of 1-1.5 kg each.

12.1. Problem soils

Chemical constraints: Salinity, sodicity, acidity and nutrient toxicities

Physical constraints : High or low permeability, sub soil hard pan, surface crusting, fluffy paddy soils, sandy soils etc.