eChapters

Flowers are the reproductive structures of Angiosperms. The apical shoot meristem of the vegetative plant continues to produce new leaves and vegetative buds, which may develop into branches, but after sometime, the meristem, instead of producing leaves and branches, becomes transformed into specialized reproductive structures called flowers. The transformation of vegetative shoot apex into re-productive structure is called flowering. The process of flowering is controlled by two main important environmental factors, i.e., (i) the duration of light received by the plant called photoperiod and (ii) the low temperature treatment given to the seed or the plant referred to as vernalization (Figure 6.1).

Crop Management Practices
DSIR/TPDU/TIF 056 and E-28-GO-GOI Research Scheme on “Documentation and Preservation of Agricultural Traditional Knowledge through Farmer Participatory Approach”

Medicinal Plants
DSIR/TPDU/TIF 056 and E-28-GO-GOI Research Scheme on “Documentation and Preservation of Agricultural Traditional Knowledge through Farmer Participatory Approach”

Indian agriculture is characterized by small farm holdings. The average farm size was only 1.21 hectares during 2005-10 and it would be 0.68 ha by 2030. Around 85% of farmers have land holdings smaller than 2 ha and they cultivate nearly 60% of the available land. The contribution of agriculture sector to the total (GDP) has decline from 38% in 1980 to 29% in 2000 and 15% in 2010-11. The per capita availability of land was 0.15 ha in 1999-2000, which will reduce to 0.11 ha by 2020. As per estimates, India would require about 345 million tones of food grains for feeding about 1.5 billion populations by the year 2020. Approximately 90% of total farm holdings are categorized as small and marginal. There is hardly any scope of horizontal area expansion. The situation is, further, aggravated due to globalization of market and trade relaxations, which call for competitiveness and efficient agricultural production system to face never challenges on the ecological, climatic, equity, social justice and employment front. In areas, endowed with adequate irrigation resources, short duration pulses, oilseeds and other high value crops will find their definite niche as sequential or intercrops, rather than replacing the major cereal crops having higher yield potential combined with high stability. Hence, an increased cropping intensity will contribute substantially to additional demands of food and cash crops.

Predictive analytics estimates future health risks and outcomes, while prescriptive analytics recommends appropriate interventions and resource-allocation strategies. This chapter explains how statistical models, machine learning and healthcare data can support disease-risk assessment, prognosis and personalized treatment. Applications involving cardiovascular disease, diabetes, cancer, chronic-disease management and early-warning systems are examined. The integration of clinical, genomic, lifestyle and electronic health-record data is discussed alongside survival analysis, disease-progression modelling and treatment-response prediction. The chapter also addresses bias, fairness, transparency, privacy, regulation and interoperability. Future developments involving real-time analytics, IoT-enabled monitoring and precision medicine illustrate the transition toward proactive, preventive and data-driven healthcare.

A weather hazard is an extreme weather event that threatens people or property. There are various weather hazards that affect agricultural productions. These hazards vary from one climatic zone to another and occur at different times, although some regions are more vulnerable to certain hazards than other. These weather hazards depend on the latitude of the place on the world map. These hazards affect crops and agricultural productivity negatively if they are not checked. Every agricultural zone has one particular hazard that is associated with it and in most cases affects the crop productions and reduces the annual crop yield. Weather hazards include cyclones, droughts, f loods, hailstorms, heat-waves and cold-waves.

The hazard is distinguished from an extreme event and a disaster. An extreme event is simply an unusual event; it does not necessarily cause harm. A disaster is an event that does cause harm in significant amounts. Weather hazards are often called as natural hazards. The natural hazards become natural disasters when people’s lives and livelihoods are destroyed.

Hydrologic hazards are the result of either excess or a severe lack of water, i.e., flood or drought. Hydrometeorological hazard is a process or phenomenon of atmospheric, hydrological or oceanographic nature that may cause loss of life, injury or other health impacts, property damage, loss of livelihoods and services, social and economic disruption, or environmental damage. Human and material losses caused by natural disasters are a major obstacle to sustainable development. By issuing accurate forecasts and warnings in a form that is readily understood and by educating people about how to prepare against such hazards, before they become disasters, lives and property can be protected.

Pulses are the major source of lysine richprotein, which is supplementaryto cereal based proteins (metheonine).Leguminous speciesproducing edible seeds occupy prominent place in Indian dietary habits. They are, even today, a primary sourceof protein forthe majority of population in the country. Avariety of pulse crops such as peas, lentils, urad, tur, moong, yellow peas, chickenpea,pigeonpea andbeans aregrown underdifferent agro-climatic conditions, and India is recognized globally as a major player contributing toabout25 percentoftheworld’sproduction.Thepresent demand forpulsesin the countryis estimated to be about 15 milliontonnes, while the productionhovers around 12 to 14 million tones. The post harvest losses in the legumes take place at farm as well as in storage as reported by DMI (2002) are detailed in Table 1, 2 and 3.

Overview
Humanity has produced trash since the beginning of time, whether it is from the bones and other parts of the animals they kill for food or the wood they harvest to build their carts. As civilization developed, garbage was produced that was increasingly sophisticated in character. The world of consumers emerged around the close of the 19thcentury as a result of the industrial revolution. The production of non-biodegradable solid waste led to an increase in pollution not just in the air but also on Earth itself. The rise in solid waste was also primarily caused by urbanization and population growth.
Definition of Solid Waste
Glass crockery containers, plastic containers, sludge, vehicle parts, and mounds of crop wastes are among the solid waste materials. These gather in public areas and hinder people’s regular activities.
Every family produces waste or rubbish on a daily basis. We usually toss away items that we no longer need or have any use for, which puts them in the garbage category. Depending on where it comes from, solid waste can take several forms. Understanding the proper ways to handle the trash produced has become crucial in today’s dirty world. One crucial technique for managing municipal solid waste is segregation. Representation provides a good understanding of segregation at source. Composting is a crucial waste management and treatment technique.

DNA Migration in Agarose and Polyacrylamide Gels

Recommended Gel Percentages for Separation of Linear DNA

1.1 Introduction

Orchard is an area of land on which fruit trees are grown. An orchard is purposeful planting of fruit trees that is maintained for food production. It encompasses fruit or nut-producing trees which are grown for commercial production. Orchard management refers to management practices planned in the fruit orchard to maximize production of high-quality fruit and increase grower profitability. Decisions on soil preparation, crop cultivars, orchard systems and designs, location and site selection, making provision for water availability, canopy management, nutrient management, orchard floor management, pest and disease management, harvesting and mechanization etc. need to be taken care of while establishing an orchard. It is easy to establish an orchard considering its features critically but difficult to manage afterwards. It needs high managerial skills and technically skilled manpower to carry out different orchard operations. Orcharding is a long-term investment. Fruit plants once planted remain committed to the land for many years. Being perennial in nature, any mistake committed during initial years of orchard planning, is very tough to rectify.

A large number of genetic resources, species, and ecosystems are under severe threat. Many species have gone extinct and many more are being pushed towards extinction. Most of the ecosystems have also gone into what we can call functional extinction. The major factors becoming threats to biodiversity are anthropogenic. Human activities, in essence, are not benevolent for biodiversity to flourish in natural systems. Burgeoning human populations are the root cause of biodiversity destruction. Changing human lifestyles fed by a materialistic economy are further acting as catalysts for the ever-increasing human populations to destroy biodiversity evolved over millions of years amid terrestrial conditions favorable for the origin and prevalence of an astonishing variety of life forms on Earth.

There is hardly any threat to biodiversity due to natural factors except those inherent in the designs of natural evolution. A species at a certain point of time in its evolutionary history is destined to vanish, but the void in nature created due to this loss is filled by the evolution of new life forms. Not only the void is filled, the nature gradually goes on enriching itself 

Artificial intelligence is providing new opportunities to accelerate plant breeding and develop improved crop varieties capable of meeting changing agricultural demands. This chapter examines AI applications in genomic selection, phenotypic prediction, stress tolerance modelling and crop improvement. Machine learning, deep learning and predictive analytics enable researchers to analyze large genomic and phenotypic datasets and identify desirable traits. High-throughput phenotyping, image analysis, sensors, remote sensing and IoT technologies further support accurate monitoring of plant performance. The chapter also discusses AI-enabled precision agriculture, decision-support systems and sustainable crop management. Challenges involving data quality, computational requirements and model interpretability are addressed, alongside emerging opportunities involving genomics, biotechnology, robotics and digital twins.

The adoption of artificial intelligence is transforming agricultural production, management and value chains while creating significant economic and social implications. This chapter examines the socio-economic dimensions of AI adoption in agriculture. It considers economic impacts, changes in labour and employment, rural livelihoods and the accessibility of digital technologies. Particular attention is given to the digital divide and barriers that may limit adoption among different agricultural communities. The chapter also addresses policy, governance and ethical considerations surrounding AI deployment. AI applications across agricultural value chains and regional and global perspectives are discussed. Finally, the chapter considers future socio-economic transformations, research gaps and the requirements for responsible and inclusive agricultural digitalization.

Introduction

The Indian gene centre has rich diversity in vegetable crops. This diversity includes crops native to India like eggplant, parval, ridge gourd, sponge gourd, Colocasia sp., elephant yam and for centre of diversity for other vegetable crops i.e., Okra, Cucumber, Chayote, Chilli, Cucurbita etc. Rich diversity also occurs in introduced crops such as tomato, french bean, cowpea, leafy brassica, amaranth, yam and in cucurbits, bottle gourd, bitter gourd, coccinea, ash gourd, snake gourd and in bulbous crop like onion and garlic.

Genetic Resources of Vegetable Crops in India

Their diversity and conservation about 400 species constitute the global diversity in vegetable crops. This diversity is mainly distributed in seven-eight geographical regions, which represent the centres of origin and diversity as well. Among these, the regions possessing maximum diversity are the tropical American, Tropical Asian and the Mediterranean (q.v.) regions. In the tropical Asian region, both India and China hold maximum diversity.

Greenhouses are frames or inflated structures covered with a transparent or translucent material in which crops can be grown under partially controlled or totally controlled conditions of atleast. It is large enough to permit persons to work within, to carry out cultural operations. Greenhouse cultivation as well as other modes of controlled environment cultivation has been evolved to create favourable microclimate, for the crop production all through the year or during off season, when the produce is highly priced and remunerative. Green house is a broader term of protected structures which includes different types of structures according to the need. Green houses vary in size and complexity from small home or hobby structures to large commercial units, from solar green house to sophisticated environment controlled ones.

Conventional fertilizers often exhibit low nutrient-use efficiency, resulting in nutrient losses, soil degradation, water contamination and unnecessary production costs. Nano-fertilizers offer controlled and targeted nutrient delivery through formulations engineered at the nanoscale. Their high surface-area-to-volume ratio can improve nutrient availability, plant uptake, growth, bulb quality and storage performance while reducing conventional fertilizer requirements. This chapter explains the nature, modes of action and potential benefits of nano-fertilizers in onion production. It also considers nano-biofertilizers, smart nutrient-delivery systems and nano-sensors. Particular attention is given to manufacturing cost, nanotoxicity, effects on soil microorganisms, farmer accessibility and the need for standardized safety and regulatory frameworks.

Efficient nutrient and water management is essential for achieving high onion productivity without degrading soil and water resources. Excessive fertilizer use, poor irrigation practices, groundwater depletion, nutrient imbalance and climate variability can reduce input efficiency and environmental sustainability. This chapter presents soil testing, integrated nutrient management, site-specific nutrient application, microbial interventions, residue management, nanotechnology and digital soil mapping. It also covers drip and sprinkler irrigation, scheduling, fertigation, mulching, rainwater harvesting and other water-conservation practices. Technologies such as SPAD meters, GreenSeeker, GPS, GIS, drones, remote sensing, sensors, artificial intelligence and IoT systems facilitate real-time monitoring, need-based application and climate-smart management of agricultural resources.

Diseases of plants are produced by a variety of organisms from plant and animal kingdoms viz., fungi, bacteria, viruses, nematodes and insects. The diseases reduce total biomass (dry matter) production and consequently yield of the crop by general stunting, damage to the leaf tissues, fruits and seeds or by killing the plants. The degree of damage would depend upon the intensity of infection but both need not be proportional. One serious effect of disease is the disappearance from cultivation of otherwise excellent but susceptible varieties.

Vegetable crops have been found to be highly susceptible to biotic stresses from the disease causing microorganisms and insects-pests. The ability of pathogen and insect-pests to attack and proliferate in the host plant is highly specific. There are wide differences in the host plants in response to the attack by pathogens and insects. Although control of the diseases and insects by the use of chemicals is possible to certain extent but indiscriminate use of fungicides or insecticides over the crop has several disadvantages. Besides increasing cost involved in chemical control, residual toxicity of the chemicals such as fungicides, antibiotics and insecticides in food chain and development of resistance against pathogens and insect-pests to different chemicals are serious problems.

Genetic improvement of host plants conferring resistance to diseases and insect-pests is considered to be the best approach in the management of diseases and insect-pests, and this is more particularly true in case of vegetable crops. Indiscriminate use of chemicals in the vegetable sector has led to health hazard. This has resulted in switching towards organic vegetables. However, cost of production of organic vegetables naturally will not permit the common people to consume these products. Therefore, the best option is to induce resistance in the host varieties. The resistant varieties could in turn be an important component in the organic vegetable farming, thereby reducing cost of production to certain extent.

Moisture plays by far the most important role in soils as regards vegetation. It is through the medium of water that the plants obtain their quota of mineral food vital for their growth. If water is gradually withheld from the soil, at a certain stage, the plant will begin to wilt and soon dry up. The soil may still contain some moisture but the plant is unable to make use of it. The minimum moisture in the soil below which wilting will take place is called the Wilting Coefficient and at one time great importance was attached to it. The determination of this Coefficient, however, is tedius. One must grow a number of plants and slowly watch them wilt and determine the moisture content at that point. Moisture content of the soil is determined by heating a weighed quantity of the sample in an oven kept at 100-110 ^oC. The moisture is expressed as percentage on the oven-dry soil.

16.1 Introduction

Producing more crops, livestock, fish and forest products per unit of water use is an essence of water productivity and is highly essential for both food and environmental security. A variety of options exist for improving the productivity of water in agriculture through breeding, better management practices and supporting policies and institutions. It is imperative to identify a range of means to enhance water productivity in agriculture, assess their potential and the consequences of their adoption. The production systems to be considered can vary from purely rainfed to irrigated, and from dry zones to semi-humid monsoonal areas.

The productivity of water used in agriculture has almost doubled during 1961 to 2001, It is mainly due to increases in crop yields. Irrigated rice yields doubled and rain-fed wheat yields rose by 160% in that period, with little variation in water consumption per kilo of output. Globally, FAO estimates that water needs for food per capita halved from about 6 m³/day to less than 3 m³/day during 1961 to 2001 which is a significant saving and an equally significant gain for other water users.

According to an estimate, a 1% increase in water productivity in food production enables to save about 24 lit/day of water per head of population, while a 10% increase would equal current domestic water consumption. Importance of saving water in agriculture can be realised from the above observation.