eChapters

Sex

Sex is the biological make-up of male and female human beings. It is biological difference between men and women. Sex is universal, permeant, Biological. John money draw the distinction between the biological differences and behavioural characteristics that differentiates male and Female. First person used Gender opposite to sex. Founder of Gender Identity clinic at John Hopkins University in the Baltimore in US in 1966.

Gender

First used by anna Oakley. It is neutral term, dynamic, change over time and place. It is a socially constructed roles and responsibilities assigned to men and women in a given society. It refers to socio-cultural differences between males and females. Gender determines what is expected, allowed and valued in a woman / man in different contexts. In simple words, gender refers to the set of relationships between men and women at a particular point of time in a given society

Gender Blindness

It is the failure to recognize that gender as an essential determinant of social outcomes impacting projects and policies. Gender-blind policy ignores the different situation, roles, needs and interests of women, men, girls and boys.

A student investigator confronted time constraints, such as course credit pressure, and resource constraints, such as physical, budgetary, and managerial constraints, in the current investigation. However, every effort and consideration made the study as objective and scientific as feasible. Despite the researcher’s best efforts, the study depends on the respondents’ opinions, which may or may not be devoid of their perceptions and biases.

As a result, it is a modest piece of labour that may be completed over a more extended period.

Suggestions for Future Research

• The findings of the present study warrant the need for further investigations in several directions. The following suggestions are made for further research in the following areas.

• The study was confined to one state; therefore, the results cannot be generalised to the whole country. Similar analyses can be taken up in other states to generalise the results.

The quality and effectiveness of extension services are critical to the agricultural sector’s long-term viability and output. Farmers have been getting agricultural information from extension workers via interpersonal communication for many years. Still, the number of extension employees has been declining while the number of farming families has increased. As a result, the country’s current extension service needs to improve in reaching out to farmers with timely and relevant agricultural information. ICTs are considered a partial answer to quickly getting information to the growing number of farming households because relevant and timely information is vital in agriculture. Farmers may receive up-to-date knowledge and information on agricultural technologies, best practices, markets, price patterns, and customer preferences through its use.

Since farmers in many parts of India, including West Bengal , are becoming more mobile and internet savvy, disseminating useful real-time information about crops, soils, climate, cultivation practices, financing, produce storage, and marketing to farming communities is more important and challenging. Many concerted efforts from the government, non-government organizations, and industry are now required to make our farmers ICT -friendly so that the benefits of rapidly evolving technological advancements in farm production, storage, and marketing can be shared equally among all communities and sectors of farming.

This chapter deals with the research findings of the study together with a relevant discussion of the facts. Results of the study have been presented, and inferences are drawn from them about the specific objectives of the study set forth. Findings of the present investigation on Webometric Content Analysis of Websites of Agriculture and allied sectors in West Bengal and the inferences drawn from them about objectives are presented under the following headings:

6.1 The current web presence of institutions under agricultural and allied sectors in West Bengal . The number of websites under each sector and their URL domain.

6.2 Contents features of the websites , the form of web contents used, information domain and language used in websites.

6.3 Thematic areas intended audience (internal and external users), and the media presence of the websites .

6.1 Current Web Presence of Institutions Under Agricultural and Allied Sectors in West Bengal

An attempt was made to explore the web presence of the institutions related to agricultural and allied sectors viz-a-viz website domain and URL in West Bengal . The variables like the number of websites , their URL address, and domain use status under different institutions were presented in this section.

This chapter deals with an in-depth description of the methods and procedures employed in conducting the research in an organized manner. The research methodology gives the study’s work plan. The research objectives and theoretical base offer an initial framework for identifying the appropriate methodology to answer the research questions.

The procedures followed were described under the following headings.

5.1 Research design

5.2 Locale of the study

5.3 Content analysis of websites

5.4 Statistical tools used for the analysis of data.

5.5 Preparation of report

India is considered a pioneer in software development and a favourite destination for IT-enabled services. West Bengal is predominantly an agrarian State. Comprising only 2.7% of India’s geographical area, it supports nearly 8% of its population. There are 71.23 lakh farm families, of whom 96% are small and marginal farmers. The average size of land holding is only 0.77 ha. However, the State is bestowed with diverse natural resources and varied agro climatic conditions that support the cultivation of a wide range of crops.

The net cropped area is 52.05 lakh ha, comprising 68% of the geographical area and 92% of arable land. The cropping intensity is 184%. However, as the State is in the humid tropic and the Bay of Bengal is close by, it often must face natural vagaries like floods, cyclones, hailstorms, etc. Though the State has a surplus production of rice, vegetables and potatoes, a huge gap exists between the requirement and production of pulses, oilseeds, and maize. The deterioration of soil health due to imbalances in chemical fertilizers, the paucity of suitable improved seed varieties, inadequate farm mechanization, unorganized marketing structure, etc., is a major challenge to agricultural growth.

Websites

Information science is an interdisciplinary field that skirts the study of the organization, production, retrieval, storage, retrieval, use of information, and dissemination. Information and Metric studies of storage and recovery are the primary areas of Information Science. Today’s challenges for information personnel are to pave the way through enormous volumes of information brought about by different means.

The World Wide Web (WWW ), an information space, is a complex structure that incorporates all types of information that need different users and a layperson to the researcher. It is a system of interlinked hypertext documents approached via the Internet . The web pages can be viewed in a way that contains images, text, videos, and several multimedia through the forms of a web browser and negotiated between them with the help of hyperlinks.

It is also a system of multimedia that supports uniquely formatted, using markup languages like HTML or digital documents. These scripting languages support links to other documents, video files, graphics, and audio.

The term ‘Webometrics ’ (Bajorneborne & Ingwersen, 2001) was coined for content analysis , search engine performances, quantitative analysis of web related phenomena, links, and web technology analysis from an information science perspective.

A literature review attempts to discover, locate, and synthesize relevant research reports, articles, books, and other resources relating to a study subject. The review can be based on published sources like journal articles, conference papers, research abstracts, chapter books, research institution websites , and so on, as well as unpublished materials like theses and dissertations. By examining the literature, a researcher can take advantage of past research and results made by professionals to get the most out of their research.

Examining literature is an important part of every research project since it gives the investigator the information, they need to frame the study on the chosen topic. It directs an investigation on the appropriate path, keeping up with the most recent data.

Studies on Broad Areas of Webometrics

Webometric studies, ranging from earlier to more contemporary studies, have been recognized and organized under the following headings:

• Studies on the Growth and Development of Webometrics

• Studies on theoretical studies of content analysis

• Studies on Web Content Analysis

• Studies on web usage analysis

The agriculture sector in India accounts for about 20.2 per cent of its gross value added (GVA) and 17.34 per cent of the total export earnings. It employs approximately 60 per cent of the country’s workforce. It is an unavoidable source for generating demand for industrial goods and services, and domestic savings in rural India are a huge source of resource mobilization in the Indian economy. This sector plays a key role in ensuring national food security and, in the meantime, national security as well. For these reasons, the development of agriculture has a strong multiplier effect on the economy. There is also an increasing consensus that a globalizing economy and a long-term economic development plan for India are practicable only if it has agriculture and raises rural incomes as its central concern.

ICT and Information Needs of the Stakeholders

Information and communications technology (ICT) is an extension-related term used in information technology (IT) that emphasizes the role of unified communications and the integration of telecommunications like wireless signals and telephone systems and computers; it is also useful in the software system, middleware, storage, and audio-visual, that enable users to store, transmit, access, manipulate information by understanding the whole process.

Rural development is greatly aided by aquaculture funding, which improves rural people's standards of living and promotes sustainable economic growth. By analyzing its effects on job possibilities, food security, income production, and poverty reduction, this study investigates the role of aquaculture finance in rural development. It addresses several funding sources and tools used in aquaculture, such as grants, microloans, investment plans, and microfinance, emphasizing the success of these financial tools in helping small-scale rural farmers and business owners. This study also discusses market linkages, risk management, regulatory frameworks, credit availability, and other issues related to aquaculture finance. Legislators, financial institutions, and other stakeholders can create plans to optimize the socioeconomic advantages of aquaculture while fostering inclusive growth by comprehending the relationship between financing for aquaculture and rural development.

The global aquaculture and fisheries industries are essential for maintaining environmental sustainability, economic growth, and food security. With these sectors confronting historically unseen obstacles, such as excessive fishing, habitat destruction, and climate change, government policy will play a bigger role in shaping their futures. A summary of the key concepts and elements influencing how government regulations impact the long-term sustainability of fishing and aquaculture industries. The union administration is committed to providing a favorable climate in collaboration with the States and UTs so that the fishing industry can realize its full potential, achieve excellence, and fulfill its obligations to farmers and customers. To achieve the policy objectives, the government will enlist the support and involvement of all relevant parties. The National Fisheries Policy 2020 provides a planned path ahead for responsible and sustainable development, exploitation, management, and regulation of capture and culture fisheries. In order to achieve the objectives of the "Blue Economy," the Policy will guarantee fruitful integration with other economic sectors, including agriculture, coastal area development, and eco-tourism. Universities are also involved in accessing resources and knowledge.

1. Introduction

The global aquaculture industry has experienced rapid growth in recent decades, driven by increasing demand for seafood, declining wild fish stocks, and advancements in aquaculture technology. However, along with this expansion comes a heightened awareness of the environmental and social impacts associated with conventional aquaculture practices. Concerns about water pollution, habitat destruction, and the use of antibiotics and chemicals have led consumers to seek more sustainable alternatives. In response to this demand, organic fish farming has emerged as a viable solution that aligns with principles of environmental conservation, animal welfare, and food quality.

Organic fish farming represents a paradigm shift in aquaculture, emphasizing natural and holistic approaches to production while minimizing negative environmental impacts. Unlike conventional methods that often rely on intensive stocking densities, artificial feeds, and chemical inputs, organic fish farming prioritizes ecological balance, biodiversity preservation, and sustainable resource management. By integrating organic principles into aquaculture operations, farmers can mitigate environmental degradation, enhance ecosystem resilience, and produce seafood that meets stringent organic standards.

Integrated fish farming, a sustainable aquaculture practice, combines the cultivation of fish with other complementary activities such as agriculture or livestock farming in a mutually beneficial system. This chapter explores the importance of integrated fish farming as a solution to enhance the income and livelihoods of fish farmers while promoting environmental sustainability (Pauly et al., 2003). By leveraging the synergies between different farming components, integrated fish farming systems can optimize resource utilization, improve productivity, and diversify income streams for farmers. The chapter discusses various integrated fish farming models, including aquaponics, rice-fish culture, and integrated livestock-fish systems, highlighting their potential to increase profitability and resilience in the face of climate change and market uncertainties. Furthermore, the chapter examines the challenges and opportunities associated with integrated fish farming and provides recommendations for policymakers, researchers, and practitioners to promote its widespread adoption and long-term success.

This innovation introduces a system aimed at enhancing the nutritional quality of fried fish through the integration of artificial intelligence. This system consists of three fundamental elements: a microcontroller, a stainless steel probe featuring a temperature sensor, and an oil-level detection sensor. Additionally, it includes a mobile application powered by artificial intelligence, facilitating the evaluation of the polyunsaturated fatty acid to saturated fatty acid ratio and the index of atherogenicity profile of fried fish. The data collected by the microcontroller undergo thorough processing using an artificial neural network model, along with meta-heuristic optimization techniques such as genetic algorithms and particle swarm optimization (PSO). This processing led to the determination of the PUFA/ SFA and IA profiles of fried fish. Upon alignment of the derived data with the predetermined ideal PUFA/SFA and IA values stored in the application database, the application transmits this information to the system, triggering an alert through the integration of a buzzer within the device.

1. Introduction

Starting a fish hatchery has the potential to be a profitable endeavor with substantial income growth. Fish hatcheries are essential to the aquaculture sector because they breed and raise fish for a variety of uses, including commercial operations, recreational fishing, and stocking. This business has numerous advantages such as the opportunity for sustainable production methods, consistent demand for fish products, and very low initial investment expenses. Furthermore, fish hatcheries offer a practical way to address the growing global demand for seafood while also promoting economic development and job creation in nearby communities. The context for discussing the benefits and potential of establishing a fish hatchery as a way to double revenue was established by this introduction. In an established fish hatchery, fish eggs are produced and reared under carefully monitored circumstances in preparation for their eventual release into the wild or transfer to aquaculture farms. The potential of fish hatcheries to double income is examined in this introduction, which also emphasizes important aspects such as market demand, sustainability, technological improvements, and financial feasibility.

The major concern of fisheries and aquaculture is to reduce the widening gap between fish demand and supply and achieve the ultimate goal of self-sufficiency in fish production; however, this can only be achieved if technology advances. The world's fishery resources require scientific management to preserve their long-term viability and availability for future generations. Overfishing and its detrimental effects on ecosystems have become increasingly evident in recent years. Recent developments in fishing technology have focused on reducing the bycatch of non-target species, protected species, and juveniles, minimizing the environmental impact of fishing gear and their operation, and minimizing the energy use per unit volume of fish landed during fishing operations. Fishing innovations have been around for thousands of years, and they were primarily motivated by the goal of enhancing capture efficiency, which was sparked by a growing comprehension of the habits and behaviors of the species that were being sold. The degree of adoption of responsible fishing technologies strongly depends on the robustness of the fisheries management system.

Sustainable aquaculture is crucial for meeting the increasing global demand for seafood while minimizing environmental impact and ensuring long-term viability. This chapter explores various sustainable aquaculture practices and approaches aimed at enhancing productivity, environmental stewardship, and socio-economic benefits. From integrated multitrophic aquaculture to recirculating aquaculture systems, this chapter examines innovative techniques and management strategies that promote sustainability across the aquaculture sector. Through case studies and best practices, the chapter highlights the importance of adopting holistic approaches to aquaculture that consider ecological, social, and economic dimensions.

1. Introduction

Aquaculture, the cultivation of aquatic organisms, has emerged as a critical component of global food production, contributing significantly to meeting the increasing demand for seafood. Over the past few decades, aquaculture has experienced exponential growth, fueled by advancements in technology, increasing consumer demand, and declining wild fish stocks. This expansion has positioned aquaculture as one of the fastest-growing food sectors worldwide, providing essential protein sources and livelihoods for millions of people (Ayyappan et al., 2006).

Precision fisheries, a concept adapted from precision agriculture, involves the application of advanced technologies and data-driven approaches to optimize fishing operations and resource management. This chapter explores the potential of precision fisheries as the future of fishing, offering benefits such as increased efficiency, reduced environmental impact, and improved sustainability. By integrating cutting-edge technologies such as remote sensing, GIS (Geographic Information Systems), IoT (Internet of Things), and machine learning, precision fisheries aim to enhance decision-making, maximize yield, and minimize resource wastage. The chapter discusses key components of precision fisheries, including real-time monitoring, predictive modeling, and targeted harvesting, and examines their implications for the fishing industry, ecosystems, and coastal communities. Furthermore, the chapter highlights challenges and opportunities associated with the adoption of precision fisheries and provides recommendations for policymakers, researchers, and stakeholders to harness its full potential for sustainable fisheries management and food security.

The sustainable management of water resources is paramount in modern aquaculture practices to mitigate environmental impacts and ensure long term viability. This chapter explores innovative methods and innovations meant to reduce water consumption in aquaculture systems. We start with a summary of the significance of water conservation in aquaculture before going into several strategies including aquaponics, biofloc technology, and recirculating aquaculture systems (RAS). Recirculating aquaculture systems (RAS) consume less water and area while producing fish in large quantities. A balance between water use, waste discharge, energy consumption, and productivity must be found to accomplish both environmentally friendly and economically viable production. The biofloc systems emphasise the significance of heterotrophic bacteria in transforming organic materials into microbial aggregates that function as a source of nutrients and a mechanism for water treatment. The creation of microbial biomass is encouraged by biofloc systems, which also maintain excellent water quality by means of carbon and nitrogen cycling. These benefits include less water exchange needs, increased resistance to disease, and increased feed conversion efficiency. In a symbiotic system, hydroponically grown plants are fertilized by fish excrement, while plants filter water for fish, resulting in aquaponics. This closed-loop method uses less water, doesn't require artificial fertilizers, and reduces environmental impact.

The systematic exploration of the biological diversity of valuable compounds and organisms has emerged as a promising avenue for aquaculture and fisheries. As global demand for seafood continues to rise, coupled with the increasing challenges of overfishing and environmental degradation, the quest for sustainable solutions has intensified. Bioprospecting in aquaculture involves the identification and utilization of novel marine organisms, including microorganisms, algae, and invertebrates, for the development of aquafeeds, pharmaceuticals, and bioactive compounds. The exploration of untapped genetic resources in fisheries can lead to the discovery of resilient and economically valuable fish species, contributing to the diversification of aquaculture production. The integration of bioprospecting into aquaculture and fishery practices holds immense promise for fostering sustainable development, ensuring food security, and mitigating the environmental impacts of traditional practices. However, successful implementation requires a balanced approach that considers economic, social, and environmental factors, ultimately guiding the industry toward a more resilient and ecologically responsible future.

Aquaculture, the cultivation of aquatic organisms such as fish, shellfish, and seaweed, has grown exponentially in recent decades due to overfishing and the increasing demand for seafood. This chapter provides a comprehensive overview of aquaculture practices, including its methods, species, and technological advancements. It also delves into the environmental impacts associated with aquaculture, both positive and negative. Key issues such as habitat destruction, water pollution, genetic diversity, and using wild fish for feed are discussed, along with mitigation strategies and sustainable practices. The chapter concludes with a discussion on policy frameworks and future directions for minimizing the environmental footprint of aquaculture while maximizing its potential to contribute to global food security.

1. Introduction

Aquaculture, or the farming of aquatic organisms, has become a significant component of the global food system. It encompasses the breeding, rearing, and harvesting of fish, shellfish, algae, and other aquatic organisms in various aquatic environments including freshwater, brackish water, and marine water. Aquaculture's rapid expansion has been driven by the decline in wild fish stocks due to overfishing, as well as the growing global population and increased per capita consumption of seafood (FAO, 2020).

Aquaculture is now the food production industry with the greatest rate of growth in the world due to its continued enormous output expansion. However, the sector's sustainability is in jeopardy because of the anticipated impacts of climate change, which are both a present and a future reality. In addition to the numerous stresses that fish stocks currently face-such as overfishing, habitat loss, pollution, disturbances, and invasive species climate change is an extra one. It is necessary to include other anthropogenic forces when assessing the effects of climate change. The increasing frequency and intensity of extreme weather events can have significant consequences, such as storms that destroy property or flood freshwater fields. Different physiological impacts and pressures will alter the growth and development of fish and shellfish, thereby making them more vulnerable to infections and illnesses. In this research, we examine how climate change may affect aquaculture productivity and how that may affect the sustainability of the industry. There has been discussion on several aspects of a changing climate, including increasing temperatures, sea level rise, illnesses and toxic algal blooms, altered rainfall patterns, the unpredictability of outside input sources, altered sea surface salinity, and extreme weather events.

Aquaculture, the farming of aquatic organisms, holds immense promise for meeting the growing global demand for seafood while alleviating pressure on wild fish stocks. This abstract explores the future trajectory of aquaculture, highlighting both its prospects and the challenges it faces. The future of aquaculture appears bright, with projections indicating continued growth in production to meet rising demand for seafood. Advancements in technology, such as recirculating aquaculture systems (RAS) and genetic improvements in fish breeds, offer opportunities for increased efficiency, productivity, and sustainability. Furthermore, the diversification of species farmed, including high-value marine species and alternative protein sources such as algae and insect-based feeds, opens new avenues for innovation and market expansion. Despite its potential, aquaculture confronts numerous challenges that must be addressed to realize its full benefits sustainably. Environmental concerns, such as habitat degradation, water pollution, and disease transmission, remain significant challenges requiring robust management strategies. Additionally, social and economic considerations, including equitable access to resources, labor rights, and market dynamics, present complex obstacles to the industry's growth and inclusivity. Furthermore, regulatory frameworks must adapt to evolving technologies and practices to ensure responsible and ethical aquaculture development.

Fisheries are capture fisheries, which involve catching wild fish from natural bodies of water, and culture fisheries, also known as aquaculture, include raising fish in controlled environments. Aquaculture offers a promising avenue for meeting the growing demand for seafood. Besides, capturing fisheries has been a traditional seafood source for centuries. Some of the aquaculture's advantages are increased food production (i.e., producing over half of all seafood consumed globally) and improved food security, particularly in developing nations where protein deficiency and malnutrition pose significant challenges. While fisheries face overfishing, habitat destruction, and by-catch, aquaculture contends with environmental impacts, disease management, and feed sustainability. Nevertheless, both sectors present promising solutions: fisheries through sustainable management, technological advancements, marine protected areas, aquaculture through increased food production, reduced environmental impact, economic benefits, and sustainable feed sources. By addressing these challenges and embracing these opportunities, fisheries and aquaculture can contribute to a more sustainable and food-secure future. Therefore, the future of seafood production will likely involve a combination of aquaculture and capture fisheries, each playing a complementary role by addressing their respective challenges and embracing opportunities for improvement. Aquaculture and capture fisheries can work together to ensure a sustainable seafood supply for a growing global population.

Aquaculture is associated with the rearing, breeding, and harvesting of aquatic organisms in cages, tanks, ponds, or other simulated systems, and can be practiced in fresh water, brackish water, or marine water. The practice of cultivating aquatic species in a systematic manner dates back to before 1000 BC. Theories such as oxbow, catch-and-hold, concentration, and trap-and cropexplain how the transition from hunting to farming may have occurred along with the advancement of civilization. Along with rearing the aquatic species for nourishment, advanced techniques have led to the enhancement of economic value through the inclusion of pearl oyster farming. India is among the largest producers of fisheries and has become the world’s second largest producer of aquaculture fish. Globally, aquaculture diversity has reached a maximum value of 428 ± 11 species, of which 29 ± 1 will produce 80% of the global annual production. The total global aquaculture production has increased enormously, from 20 million tons in 1992 to more than 120 million tons in 2020. Fisheries and aquaculture have become essential foods providing commodities worldwide and an important means of nourishment for the poor. A temporal and geographical analysis of global aquaculture diversity reveals an original and hopefully enlightening vision of modern aquaculture and its perspectives.

Introduction

Intellectual property encompasses the products of human creativity, including inventions, artistic works, and commercial symbols. It can be categorized into two main types: industrial property and copyright. Industrial property covers patents, trademarks, industrial designs, and geographic indications of source. Copyright, on the other hand, protects literary and artistic works such as novels, poems, films, music, and visual arts. Intellectual property rights (IPRs) also extend to related areas such as performers’ rights, recording producers’ rights, and broadcasting rights. These rights safeguard the interests of creators by granting them exclusive ownership over their creations. However, unlike tangible property, intellectual property lacks physical characteristics and must be expressed in a discernible manner to be protected.

Traditionally, intellectual property comprised four primary types: patents, trademarks, copyrights, and trade secrets. However, the concept has evolved to encompass newer forms, such as geographical indications, plant variety protection, semiconductor and integrated circuit (IC) protection, and undisclosed information. This expansion reflects the changing landscape of innovation driven by rapid technological, scientific, and medical advancements.

Introduction

Breeders expect a new variety to show high performance for yield and its contributing characters along with other physiological and nutritional traits. A variety is said to be superior not only for its higher economic yield, but also for its consistent performance over a wide range of environmental conditions. But the performance of a particular variety is the resultant of its genetic constitution and the environment in which it has been grown. Particular variety may not exhibit same phenotypic performance under different environments, or different varieties may perform differently to a specific environment.

The basic cause of differences in the stability of different genotypes is the interaction effect of genotype and environment, known as genotype × environment (G × E) interaction (GEI). The term environment refers to the uncontrolled external conditions that affect expression of genes of an individual genotype such as the annual rainfall, dry spells, soil fertility gradients, waterlogging, depth and texture of soil, and photoperiod and incidence of disease or pests. However, prediction of GEI is seldom possible with available and known factors. Therefore, the environmental factors can be categorized as predictable and unpredictable environmental factors (Table 1).

Epigenetics is a new field of research in plant biology, which aims to provide a powerful tool to improve crop productivity, adaptability, and resistance to biotic and abiotic stresses. In recent years, researchers have begun to explore the potential of epigenomics in plant breeding, providing breeders with an alternative to genetic engineering, addressing concerns related to genetically modified organisms (GMOs) in agriculture. In particular, epigenetic markers (epimarkers) are chemicals which regulate genes by sitting over the DNA sequence; they explore the consequences of thermal and ionic variation on the behavior of plant under stress conditions. Moreover, epialleles may be promising sources of new variation of traits that are controlled by genes that are not detrimentally regulated. In this chapter, we provide an overview of the current state of the art in epigenomic research, focusing on the impact of next-generation sequencing (NGS) on epigenomes, as well as the potential use of epigenetics in crop breeding.

Introduction

Epigenetics is the study of heritable changes in gene expression that occur without alterations in the DNA sequence. It involves modifications of the DNA or associated proteins that can influence gene activity and expression. Most cells in an organism share the same genes, although they can be very diverse from one another. This is due to the fact that not all genes are active in all cells at the same time. The epigenetic context of a gene, or its accessibility to transcription, can tell whether the gene is likely to be active or not (Klemm et al. 2019). Indeed, the nuclear genome is found as a dense combination of long DNA strings wrapped around specialized proteins called histones to create nucleosomes (Samo et al. 2021). These nucleosomes can be further packed together to form even denser 3D formations that are sometimes visible under a microscope, giving rise to the term “chromatin”.

Conventional crop breeding requires a substantial investment of time, space, and resources for the selection process and the subsequent crossing of desired plants. The time taken for the complete seed-to-seed cycle is a critical constraint in the advancement of plant research and breeding. The concept of speed breeding holds the promise of diminishing the duration necessary for the entire process of cultivar development, from creation to introduction and eventual commercial availability, thereby enhancing the improvement of both food and industrial crops. It revolves around optimizing conditions such as light intensity, temperature, and daylight duration (22-hour light, 22°C day/17°C night, and high light intensity). This approach enhances photosynthesis, triggering early flowering, and, in combination with yearly seed collection. The adoption of speed breeding shows promises in realizing nutritional security and promoting sustainable agriculture for the future rising population. The technique’s integration with advanced genomics and gene editing opens doors to precise trait incorporation. Moreover, speed breeding reduces resource consumption, aligning with sustainability goals. As local adaptations become feasible, it empowers diverse regions.

Wide hybridization or distant hybridization is crossing between two different species or genera, and has been used successfully to transfer genes and to create new crop species. Wild plant species related to crop plants form an important source of useful traits for quality improvement and biotic and abiotic stress tolerance. Cultivated species has lost many beneficial traits for stress tolerance in the process of domestication and selection, which resulted in uniformity in many agronomic traits. Although there have been multiple cases of valuable tolerant genes being transferred from wild rice to cultivated rice, it is now necessary to look at new breeding and selection strategies that may be applied to wide hybridization. It breaks the species barrier for gene transfer and makes it possible to transfer the genome of one species to another, which results in changes in genotype and phenotype of the progenies. The barriers in wide hybridization occurs as prezygotic and postzygotic barriers. Techniques of chromosome doubling, bridging species, protoplast fusion, and embryo rescue are highly beneficial in recovering fertile progenies by overcoming various barriers in wide crossings. Broadening the gene pool of a crop is an important plant breeding method as it can enhance tolerance of major biotic and abiotic stresses and improve the quality characteristics of the plant.

Introduction

Crop improvement lies at the heart of ensuring food security, agricultural sustainability, and the resilience of our farming systems. As we confront a world characterized by climate variability, emerging pests, and a growing global population, the need for innovative approaches to crop enhancement becomes paramount. This is where the concept of pre-breeding steps in: a fundamental phase that acts as a bridge between the untamed genetic diversity of wild plants and the refined traits of cultivated crops. Pre-breeding represents the exploration, identification, and incorporation of valuable genetic traits from the vast array of plant species that often remain on the fringes of agricultural attention. These “wild relatives” and underutilized varieties possess traits that have evolved over time to withstand diverse environmental stresses, combat diseases, and adapt to changing conditions. Pre-breeding aims to tap into these reservoirs of genetic potential, merging them with the qualities we value in our cultivated crops. At its core, pre-breeding is a scientific journey of discovery and innovation. It involves the strategic selection and hybridization of plant materials, guided by a vision of enhancing crop performance across multiple fronts. The goal is to create crop varieties that are not only productive and high yielding, but also equipped to thrive in the face of evolving challenges. This involves a delicate dance between tradition and cutting-edge techniques as well as collaboration between breeders, geneticists, and researchers (Qureshi et al. 2014).

Two cornerstone methodologies in genetics, forward genetics and reverse genetics, illuminate the intricate connection between gene sequences and their functions. Forward genetics traditionally entailed laborious steps, beginning with the observation of mutants and culminating in the identification of causal genetic alterations. While effective, this approach was time-consuming and limited in scalability. Recent innovations have revolutionized forward genetics with next-generation sequencing (NGS), genome-wide association studies (GWAS), CRISPR (clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats)-based screens, and advanced computational techniques. These advancements deliver precision and efficiency, enabling researchers to explore gene function on an unprecedented scale. In contrast, reverse genetics initiates its journey armed with sequence data and harnesses the manipulation of genes to observe resultant phenotypic shifts. Traditional reverse genetics, though invaluable, faced challenges like limited precision and scalability. Cutting-edge approaches have transformed the landscape. Techniques such as prime editing, base editing, high-throughput functional genomics, single-cell genomics, and synthetic biology offer unparalleled precision and capacity. They empower scientists to scrutinize gene function at the single-cell level, conducting precise genome editing and large-scale functional genomics studies. These strides in forward and reverse genetics have charted new territories for genetic research.

The whole genome sequencing helps the researcher to identify the desired gene and make it useful for the breeding program by transferring that particular gene into improved cultivar. Since, the whole genome sequence is not available for all crops and animals; there is a need of advanced techniques to overcome this problem. One such technique is TILLING (Targeting Induced Local Lesions IN Genomes) and its related technique called Eco-TILLING. TILLING is a reverse genetic approach used to identify the point mutation created by chemical mutagen in the mutagenized population. The chemical mutagen is most widely used and it will create allelic series of mutations which include nonsense, missense, or splice site mutation. The individuals with mutation were pooled by two-dimensional or three-dimensional pooling techniques. These mutations were identified by the formation of heteroduplex complex in the mutated region of the gene. Then, the heteroduplex is cleaved by S1 nuclease family enzyme and were examined in gel electrophoresis which distinguishes heteroduplex from homoduplexes. Now, the identified mutants in gel electrophoresis were subjected to sequencing for confirmation. Eco TILLING is similar to the TILLING except for the mutant population, as we use the natural mutant population in Eco-TILLING; whereas in TILLING we use the artificial mutant population and also pooling is done with reference sample in Eco-TILLING. The advantage of TILLING is that it is a cost-effective, rapid screening of mutant population and a nontransgenic approach as it does not require biosafety measures.

Genome editing has revolutionized plant breeding, offering precise and efficient methods to enhance crop traits. This chapter provides an overview of genome editing’s principles, applications, challenges, and future prospects in plant breeding. The chapter explores genome editing technologies, with a focus on CRISPR-Cas9 (clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats-associated protein 9), TALENs (transcription activator-like effector nucleases), and ZFNs (zinc finger nucleases). CRISPR-Cas9, in particular, has become the go-to tool for precision breeding, allowing scientists to target and modify specific genes with unprecedented accuracy. Applications of genome editing in plant breeding are diverse. It enables the development of crops with enhanced disease resistance, drought tolerance, and improved nutritional content. Additionally, genome-edited crops reduce environmental impact by requiring fewer chemical inputs and promoting sustainable farming practices. Accelerated breeding shortens the time needed to create new crop varieties, addressing urgent agricultural challenges. Looking ahead, the future of genome editing holds exciting possibilities. Continuous advancements in technology promise even more precise editing tools and high-throughput capabilities. Precision breeding will become the norm, allowing for tailored crop varieties and customized agricultural practices.

Introduction

The main goal of plant breeding is to increase crop yield and the second goal is to improve quality, develop light- and heat-insensitive varieties, tolerance to biotic and abiotic stresses, simultaneous maturation, and water and nutrient use. Efficiency, elimination of toxins, and cultivation of different product groups allow to achieve high agricultural yields and sustainable development. Better understanding and development of genetics has increased the efficiency of plant breeding to achieve desired goals in agricultural crops. Effective and efficient use of molecular markers in crop improvement programs increases selection efficiency and productivity and accelerates the growth cycle to create new varieties with good results. Marker assisted selection (MAS) is a technique that uses markers (morphological, biochemical, or DNA/RNA variation-based markers) to indirectly select for traits of interest (e.g., productivity, disease, genetic determinants resistance, abiotic stress tolerance and/or quality). This process is used in plant and animal breeding. The rapid development of biotechnology has allowed breeders to develop better selections to replace traditional selections based on phenotypic pedigree.

Transgenic crops, developed through genetic engineering techniques, have revolutionized modern agriculture by conferring novel traits that enhance yield, quality, and resilience. This chapter delves into the intricate interplay between the scientific advancements in breeding approaches for transgenic crops and the critical ethical concerns and regulatory frameworks that accompany them. The chapter begins by introducing the concept of transgenic crops and provides an overview of the diverse breeding techniques employed to manipulate plant genomes. These techniques include Agrobacterium mediated transformation, biolistic transformation, CRISPR-Cas9 (clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats–associated protein 9) genome editing, RNA interference (RNAi), and site-specific integration methods. Each method is presented within the context of its potential benefits and limitations. The subsequent sections address the ethical considerations that arise from the creation and deployment of transgenic crops. The potential ecological and biodiversity impacts, cross-contamination risks with conventional crops, and issues related to patenting genetically modified organisms (GMOs) are explored. Furthermore, the chapter examines the ethical implications of genetically modified crops on human and animal health and questions surrounding the monopolization of seed resources. Looking to the future, the chapter outlines emerging breeding technologies and anticipates potential challenges in ethical consideration and regulation.

Introduction

One of the biggest problems emerging for the survival of the people in the future is food security. To feed an anticipated nine billion people by 2050, the globe would need to produce roughly twice as much food as it does today. In order to properly accomplish this aim, food production must be elevated sustainably on currently available arable land while addressing the problems brought on by climate change. Over the past five decades, crop yields have steadily increased due to crop breeding programs and better management practices. The rate of yield improvement has, however, reached a plateau (Grassini et al. 2013). The noncompounding yearly yield growth of 0.9% for wheat at the present time, world output rises by 38%, is quite small, and is unable to fulfill expected demand levels by 2050. Therefore, the most beneficial course of action is to investigate more effective, higher-yielding crops (Ray et al. 2013).

Historically, the genetic improvement of wheat has been accomplished by sexual hybridization between related species, giving rise to a large number of cultivars with excellent agronomic performance and high yields. The main methodology for improving cereal crops is still traditional plant breeding, sometimes in combination with traditional cytogenetic methods (Salina et al. 2015). Cereal crops immediately became the top targets for genetic modification due to the worldwide importance of cereal grains in human diets. Over the past 10 years, wheat genetic technology for processing has advanced quickly.

Salinity stress poses a significant threat to agricultural productivity worldwide, impeding crop growth and yield potential. Developing crop varieties with enhanced salinity tolerance is essential for ensuring food security and sustainable agriculture. Salinity stress, resulting from excessive salt accumulation in soil and irrigation water, adversely impacts crop growth, water uptake, and nutrient assimilation. Traditional breeding methods, coupled with recent advancements in molecular and genomic techniques, have enabled the development of crop varieties capable of thriving in saline environments. Genetic diversity serves as the foundation for breeding efforts, allowing the identification and selection of individuals with inherent salinity tolerance traits. Utilization of wild crop relatives and landraces provides a valuable reservoir of genetic variation for salinity stress adaptation. Incorporation of molecular markers into breeding programs expedites the selection of desirable traits. Quantitative trait loci (QTLs) associated with salinity tolerance are identified through techniques such as genome-wide association studies (GWAS) and linkage mapping, facilitating marker assisted selection. Additionally, recent strides in gene editing technologies like CRISPR-Cas9 (clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats–associated protein 9) offer precise modification of candidate genes responsible for salinity response, accelerating the breeding process. A holistic approach encompassing physiological and biochemical aspects is crucial for accurate phenotypic selection. Traits, such as ion homeostasis, osmotic adjustment, and antioxidative capacity, provide insights into a plant’s salinity tolerance potential

Our natural ecology comprises insects, which are known to have both advantageous and detrimental consequences. Insect pests are the main obstacles in maximizing agricultural crop output, since they directly or indirectly result in significant crop loss. The intricate relationship that phytophagous insects have with their hosts is the result of a protracted and ongoing evolutionary process. Because of this, it is impossible to completely eradicate them, but there is a hopeful fix for this issue, i.e., utilizing insect resistant crop varieties. Insect-resistant kinds are those that, with the same starting infestation level and similar environmental conditions, yield considerably higher yields of high-quality fruit than susceptible varieties. By boosting yield and reducing pesticide use, these varieties had an enormous economic benefit. There are a number of highly effective insect resistance mechanisms that the targeted insect pest cannot simply overcome. This chapter discusses various breeding strategies such as introduction, selection, and hybridization as well as some modern breeding approaches that have been used to develop many insect-resistant crop varieties that have significantly improved the world’s food supply, by reducing carbon inputs through reduced pesticide use. By expressing bacterial endotoxins and producing Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) crops, genetic engineering also aids in the production of insect-resistant crops. Furthermore, RNA interference (RNAi) and genome editing by CRISPR/Cas9 (clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats/CRISPR associated 9) offer new avenues for the production of insect-resistant crops.

The chapter “Breeding Strategies for Disease Resistance” provides a comprehensive exploration of addressing disease resistance through various breeding strategies. In an era of escalating global challenges and climate change, where crop failures can lead to food shortages and economic instability, the chapter delves into strategies that integrate traditional breeding methods with cutting-edge genetic advancements to strengthen plants against pathogens. Understanding the genetics of plant–pathogen interactions holds profound importance. This knowledge elucidates the mechanisms underpinning disease development and offers insights into developing targeted strategies for disease management. By deciphering the genetic details governing host susceptibility and pathogen virulence, we gain the ability to engineer crops with enhanced resistance, reducing reliance on chemical interventions and promoting sustainable agriculture. The chapter further discusses the mechanism of disease resistance in plants which involves inherent genetic traits that identify pathogen molecules, triggering a rapid defense response called “gene-for-gene” interaction. Systemic acquired resistance (SAR), where a local pathogen attack prompts the entire plant to boost its defense preparedness. Signaling molecules like salicylic acid play a pivotal role. Additionally, plants employ chemical defenses via secondary metabolites and leverage beneficial microorganisms to stimulate immune pathways. This coordinated approach empowers plants to effectively counter pathogens and elevate disease resistance. In this chapter, we discuss breeding strategies for disease resistance that encompass a range of vital approaches. Traditional methods involve selecting and breeding plants with inherent resistance traits and incorporating genes from related species to enhance defenses.

Modern and transgenic breeding approaches consist of modern plant breeding triangle, high-throughput phenotyping (HTP), marker-assisted selection (MAS), marker-assisted backcrossing (MABC), genomic selection (GS), genome-wide association study (GWAS), and genome editing. MAS accelerates trait identification through DNA markers, improving efficiency in selecting plants with desired traits. MABC employs molecular markers to facilitate gene introgression from donor parents (DPs) to superior recurrent parents (RPs). GS employs genome-wide markers to predict performance, revolutionizing breeding by considering both major and minor-effect quantitative trait loci (QTLs). Genome editing techniques like CRISPR-Cas9 (clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats associated protein 9) enable targeted gene modifications for desired traits. Genome editing involves selecting target genes, designing guide RNAs for Cas9, and introducing the CRISPR-Cas9 system into plants. This technology has been utilized to enhance crop productivity, sustainability, and disease resistance. Transgenic crops are designed to carry specific traits, such as pest resistance, virus resistance, abiotic stress tolerance, and nutritional enrichment. Agrobacterium tumefaciens is highlighted as a tool for transgene introduction, offering advantages like low copy number integration and stable expression. Genetic engineering remains a promising avenue for creating disease-resistant crops and ensuring global food security.

This chapter covers plant breeding’s present, past, and future prospects with a special emphasis on cultivar development. In order to increase agricultural production and productivity (yield per unit area) of important crops, plant breeders have achieved significant achievements in the genetic enhancement of yield, adaptive features, disease–pest resistance, abiotic stress tolerance, and nutritional qualities. Plant breeding is more crucial than ever to address production issues in order to provide a steady supply of food, feed, and fiber due to the growing demands of the human population and rising climate fluctuations. Now a days plant breeders have advanced tools to create superior cultivars because of recent technological developments in the fields of phenomics, genomics, and biotechnology. This chapter has covered important topics of crop domestication, pre-Mendelian and post Mendelian plant breeding, plant breeding in the 20th and 21st centuries, including information on the green revolution, genetically engineered crops, molecular marker applications, image-based phenotyping, machine learning techniques, and the relationship between both public and private plant breeding organizations, and future plant breeding efforts.

1. The term extension is __________ word. (Latin)
2. _____________ is the father of extension. (Leagnes)
3. The term extension was first used in _____________. (U.K.)
4. The goal of the extension is to promote ______________. (Scientific out-look)
5. The success of rural projects depends upon ______________. (Agricultural Extension)
6. The National Extension Service was started in the year ___________. (2nd Oct., 1953)
7. Training of Rural Youth for self employment was started in the year _____________. (1980)
8. Agriculture extension was first started in ________________. (Bihar Agricultural University, Sabour)
9. T & V programme was introduced in ____________. (1974)

1. _____________ coined the term wildlife. (William Hornday)
2. National Biodiversity Board is situated at_____________. (New Delhi)
3. The term biodiversity was coined by_____________. (Edward Wilson)
4. The study of combination of animal behaviour and ecology is called as_____________. (Ethology)
5. _____________ is the place where an organism or community lives. (Habitat)
6. _____________ is the living medium of the habitat in a wetland. (Water)
7. _____________can be defined as the functional status of an organism in an ecosystem or the role played by a species in its natural habitat. (Niche)
8. The food which is totally non-nutritive and is consumed by the animals only to fulfil its stomach is called ___________. (Stuffing food)
9. The period in which the food is not sufficiently available and causes trouble to the animal, is called __________. (Pinch period)

1. A measure of the items in a random sample is known as_____________. (Statistics)
2. Most commonly used measure of central tendency is_____________. (Arithmetic Mean)
3. Mean deviation is the_____________, when calculated about median. (Least)
4. Arithmetic mean of central tendency is applied for calculation of_____________ and _____________. (Regression and Correlation coefficient)
5. Arithmetic mean and variance are always equal in_____________ distribution. (Poisson)
6. Geometric mean of central tendency is appropriate for_____________. (Index number)
7. _____________ is the sum of all values/ number of values. (Arithmetic mean)
8. Middle most item of all values is_____________. (Median)
9. _____________ measure of central tendency requires data arrangement in ascending or descending order for its estimation. (Median)

1. An imaginary line joining the points of equal elevation on the surface of the earth represents_____________. (Contour lines)
2. The vertical distance between consecutive contours lines is called_____________. (Contour interval)
3. When measured with a compass, the line of sight that run midway between due North and due West has a bearing of_____________. (N 45 degree W)
4. A survey of a large area which consider the earth’s curvature is called a _____________ survey. (Geodetic)
5. The distinctive feature of topographic maps is the_____________ of the land. (Shape or Contour)
6. The colour used to depict fence lines and important roads on a topographic map is _____________ and_____________. (Red and black)
7. A surveyor’s chain is divided into links and each link is_____________ long. (0.66 feet)
8. A body of water on a topographic map is presented by_____________ colour. (Blue)
9. On a topographic map a ploughed field would be sown as_____________ colour. (White)

1. The technique of acquiring information about some object by recording devices, without being in physical contact with the object under study is_____________. (Remote sensing)
2. The term remote sensing was coined by ____________. (Ms. Evelyn Pruitt)
3. Father of Indian remote sensing is ________________. (Pisharoth Rama Pisharoty)
4. In remote sensing_____________ type of radiation is utilized for photography.(Infra red)
5. First aerial photograph was taken in 1858 by Felix Tournachon, known as ________, from a tethered ballon over the Bievre Valley in France. (Nadar)
6. Remote sensing systems which provide their own source of energy for illumination are known as_____________. (Active sensors)
7. _____________ sensors are very useful in detecting and mapping forest fires. (Thermal sensors)
8. Land cover classification using three levels of the scale of 1 : 100000 was developed by _____________agency. (NRSA)
9. The forest survey of India (FSI) conducts forest cover survey once in every_____________. (2 years)

1. ‘Agrostoogical’ refers to cultivation of_____________. (Grasses)
2. Land on which the potential plant community is composed periodically of native grass, forbs and shrubs valuable for forage and in sufficient quantity to justifying grazing use is called as_____________. (Rangeland)
3. The basic object of range management is to_____________ and_____________ the rangeland for higher production of fodder, rich in nutritive value and palatability. (Improve & maintain)
4. ICAR had carried a grassland survey of India in 1954 by Wnyte, Venkatramanan and Dabadghao had found_____________ types of grass land in different environment. (8)
5. The main reason for the enormous increase in livestock population is_____________. (Social attitude of the people)
6. All the vegetation consumed by grazing animals including fruits and twigs of trees and shrubs is called_____________. (Pasturage & forage)
7. The practice by which the gap can be bridged between the requirement and availability of animal feeds and fodder is known as_____________. (Grass land techniques)
8. The scientists_____________ have recognised five type of grass covers in India. (Dabadghao & Shankar Narayan, 1979)
9. The maximum area of about 2.8 milloin square kilometre is covered under_____________ type of grassland in India. (Phragmites Saccharum type)

1. A plant cell constitutes the_____________ per cent of water. (80-90%)
2. Photosynthesis is the process of conversion of_____________ energy into _____________ energy. (Radiant, Chemical)
3. Dark reaction of photosynthesis occurs in_____________ and light reaction occurs in _____________ region of chloroplast. (Matrix, Lamellae)
4. The connecting link between glycolysis and Kreb’s cycle is_____________. (Pyruvic acid)
5. _____________ is responsible for turgidity of plant cells. (Osmosis)
6. A diffusion of liquids through a semi-permeable membrane is known as_____________. (Osmosis)
7. The diffusion of solvent particles into a living cell is known as_____________. (Endo-osmosis)
8. The diffusion of solvent particles out of a living cell is known as_____________. (Exo-osmosis)
9. The outward pressure exerted by the cell solution on the cell wall which is developed due to osmotic diffusion of water is called as_____________. (Turgor pressure)