eChapters

Introduction

Breadfruit has long been an important staple crop and a primary component of traditional agroforestry systems in the Pacific, where numerous varieties are grown. Breadfruit was first domesticated in the western Pacific and has been spread by humans throughout the region over the past 3,000–4,000 years. From

Melanesia to Micronesia to Polynesia, many islanders grow and use breadfruit as part of their daily diet. Breadfruit has a significant and often unappreciated legacy in Hawai. It is one of the canoe plants brought from the society Islands centuries ago, and the variety they brought, known simply as ‘Ulu (same as the

Hawaii a word for breadfruit), was widely grown throughout the archipelago.

Need for climate-smart agriculture strategy

Climate change has long-lasting and potentially detrimental consequences on the agriculture sector. Changes in weather events cause perturbations across agricultural ecosystems and have impact on farm productivity. Adopting the climate-smart agriculture approach has thus, become inevitable in order to build resilience in agriculture systems and cope up with climate change. With a view to implementing climate-smart agricultural practices to ensure climate resilience, certain broad strategies have to be adopted. The CSA approach is designed to identify and operationalize sustainable agricultural development within the explicit parameters of climate change (Climate Smart Agriculture Sourcebook.FAO.2013). It integrates the three dimensions of sustainable development (economic, social and environmental) by jointly addressing food security and climate challenges.

Introduction

Sweet form sugar: Glucose, 0.16% oxalic acid 0.06% malic acid. The fruits are attractive, golden-yellow in colour. Bilimbi (Averrhoa bilimbi L.) ‘Cucumber tree’and ‘Tree Sorrel’are synonyms of bilimbi. Its produced gherkin. It is also known as five-corner fruit or five-edge fruit. Malaysia, Popular in China, Taiwan, Malaysia, Thailand, Pakistan, Indonesia and India. Carambola is a good source of vitamin A, B, and C, minerals, especially Fe, K, Mg and P. The composition of fruit is 75 to 80% pulp, 5 to 7% total soluble solids, 9.4% carbohydrates, 0.4% protein, 0.5 to 1.0% acidity, 0.9% fibre, 570 to 700 IU of vitamin A and 0.3 to 0.5% minerals. It is used as a dessert fruit or for preparing juice, jam, jelly and pickles. It has medicinal value also. Ground leaves and shoots for chicken pox, root extract as an antidote for poisoning and pulp of immature fruits for cleaning brassware. It is used as an alternative to tamarind in cooking.

Introduction

The cardiovascular system is comprised of the heart and blood vessels (arteries, capillaries, and veins). The heart pumps blood to blood vessels which allow blood to flow throughout the body. Both heart and blood vessels are work together to keep the blood circulating, ensuring the interchange of O₂, CO₂, electrolytes, and nutrients between the blood and the tissue fluids & cells, and removing waste products from the body via the excretory system.

The purpose of the study of the cardiovascular system is aimed at understand the pathophysiology of the heart and vascular system. A physical examination, arterial blood pressure, and electrocardiography are routinely employed to examine the cardiovascular system. The physical examination of the heart includes palpation, percussion, and auscultation.

Introduction

A case study involves a thorough examination of an individual, group, or event, delving into nearly every facet of their life and history to identify patterns and causes of behaviour. This investigative approach finds application across diverse fields such as psychology, medicine, education, anthropology, political science, and social work. The primary objective of a case study is to acquire comprehensive knowledge about a specific individual or group, enabling the generalization of information to a broader audience. However, it is worth noting that case studies often exhibit a high degree of subjectivity, making it challenging at times to extrapolate results to a larger population.

Introduction

Cashew is native to South Eastern Brazil, from where it was introduced to the Malabar coast of India in the sixteenth century to cover bare hills and for soil conservation. It gained commercial importance in 1920. African countries produce large quantities of cashew nuts, but they are not processed into consumable products because of difficulties in organizing the native labour. India imports raw cashew nuts which are processed and converted into cashew kernels and cashew shell liquid and re-exported to countries like the USA, Canada, the United Kingdom, Australia and Russia. The cashew kernel of India is of the highest quality in the world. India is the largest producer and exporter of cashews in the world. India stands first in area and production in the world. Indian cashew export: 63 per cent of global cashew trade. The national average is 835 kg per ha (i.e., around 5.50 kg per tree) and this is far less than the achievable level of 2000 kg per ha (i.e., around 12.50 kg per tree). Maharashtra state is having the highest productivity of about 1337 kg per ha (mainly due to adoption of drip irrigation and mulching techniques), while productivity in West Bengal has come down (1140 kg/ha), mainly because of old plantations. Due to its nutritive value and commerce, it is designated as “zero cholesterol nut or white gold”. The cashew nut is a unique combination of fat (47 %), protein (21 %), carbohydrates (22 %) and vitamins (10 %). India contributes about 65 % of the world’s exports. The USA is the largest importer of cashew kernels.

The Colony Collapse Disorder (CCD) is not a disease; it is multi-factorial syndrome which causes massive losses of honey bee in the USA and elsewhere. It is recorded that in European honey bee (Apis mellifera). The adult worker bee population of the colony demean through catastrophic effects of CCD. The dwindling of adult worker bees in colonies and the lack of noticeable symptoms leads to the nebulous label of CCD. In this syndrome, dead worker bees cannot be found in the colony and their vicinity of bee hive, and stored food (honey and pollen) are not touched by robbers bees and combs remain as such for several weeks even after the collapse. Some scientists; Aizen and Harder, also reported this disorder is not universal and, in fact, global populations of honey bee (A. mellifera) populations are increasing. In the spring of 2007, beekeepers in the US reported a rare kind of bee colony disease where they die off and numerous colonies left their hives and disappeared without a trace. The plight of honey bee in USA has caused concern and attracted great attention of scientists to delve and provide explanations of this mystery and preventive measures. In US, it is also christened “Honey bee AIDS” by some popular media. Indeed, honey bee colonies can die in many ways and CCD is just one of them. Finally, since both honey bee host and pathogens are genetically diverse, the symptoms and causes of colony losses may well be different in varrious regions.

Agriculture and Food Security

Food security refers to a situation when people gain physical and access to enough food to meet the dietary requirements for a healthy life for all times. A household can have food security when all the members lead a hunger free life. It is estimated that nearly 800 million people in the world go to bed hungry every night. Food security exists when all people, at all times, have physical and economic access to sufficient, safe and nutritious food that meets their dietary needs and food preferences for an active and healthy life (World Food Summit, 1996). This definition gives rise to four dimensions of food security: availability of food, accessibility (economically and physically), utilization (the way it is used and assimilated by the human body) and stability of these three dimensions.

Introduction

Cherries occupy an important position among temperate fruits all over the world. Cultivated cherries are divided into two main groups, i.e., sweet cherries (Prunus avium) and sour cherries (P. cerasus). Cherries are rich in protein, sugar, potassium, calcium, iron and zinc. Sweet cherries are believed to have originated in an area between the Black and Caspian Seas in Southern Europe. The earliest records indicate that it was first domesticated in Greece around 300 BC. It spread to Italy from Greece where it was established as a fruit crop by 37 BC. Early setter’s brought seeds to North America and parts of South America. In India, it was introduced by British setter’s in Kashmir, Kullu and Shimla hills during the pre-independence era. World leading breeding of cherry: John Innes Horticultural Institution, Merton. A putative ancestor of cultivated sweet cherries: Anthocynins (antioxidants) are the red pigment found in cherries.

Introduction

The chestnut is similar to the acorn of oak. Chestnut trees have been growing in the temperate climate of the world for more than 4,000 years for beauty, fuel and shelter. The sweet chestnut is some nutritious low-fat food rich in vitamin B. Freshly harvested nuts contain about 50 per cent moisture, 40-42 per cent carbohydrates, 2.9 per cent proteins and about 1.5 per cent fat. In addition to providing a good food source for humans, chestnuts also provide food for a number of wild life species. Its wood is durable and used for timber and furniture work. Chestnuts and chinquapins are exceptions to all other nut trees in that they contain little oil and are high in carbohydrates, particularly in starch.

Introduction

An herb known as priyal is a drug of the Ayurveda and the Unani system of medicine. It is known to have tonic, cardiotonic, and astringent properties and is also used in the treatment of skin diseases. It is commonly known as Chironji. It is a commercially useful tropical plant. The Chironji tree is a medium-sized evergreen deciduous tree, growing 50 ft tall. It bears fruits, each containing a single seed, which is a popular edible nut, known as chironji. It is common in India, mostly in eroded land. This tree is distributed in the states of Madhya Pradesh, Bihar, Orissa, Andhra Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, Gujarat, Rajasthan, Maharashtra and also commonly found in Uttar Pradesh.

Introduction

Citrus is the leading tree fruit crop in the world. In India, citrus ranks second in area, sharing 12.8% of the total area under fruit crops with a 9.6% share in production. In the citrus group, mandarins are the most important, occupying 50% of the total area under citrus, followed by sweet oranges and limes. “Limolin”: the glycoside which is responsible for the bitter taste of citrus fruit juice.

Energy is a critical component of the economic infrastructure, as it is the primary input required to support economic growth. Economic development and energy use have a close relationship. The higher a country’s per capita energy usage, the more developed it is and vice versa. Human civilization is dependent on several energy sources.

Climatic Factors and Crop Growth

Crop growth depends on internal and external factors. Internal factors are mostly genetic or hereditary factors which include high yielding ability, resistance to lodging, tolerance to adverse conditions such as drought, flood and salinity, tolerance to insect pests and diseases, and grain quality. The external factors include climate, edaphic, biotic, physiographic and socio-economic factors.

Modern agriculture requires certain precise information on pattern of rainfall, temperature, occurrence of drought and flood etc. for formulating required strategy for crop production. It also requires knowledge about agro-climatic conditions of the region for deciding a planned cropping pattern. Therefore climatic classification and delineation of agro-climatic zones would be imperative for a country or state.

Climatic factors like increase in temperature, carbon dioxide (CO₂) concentration, moisture, and other factors directly or indirectly affect agriculture, which have been elaborately dealt in previous chapters. Climate change causes weather variability that may result in low production, hike in price of agricultural commodities including food grains, vegetables, fruits, meat, egg and milk. It is now realised that climate resilient agriculture (CRA) will be imperative to reduce the vulnerability of agriculture to the climate change.

Climate-smart Agriculture Practices and Indicators

Considering the three pillars of climate-smart agriculture such as productivity, adaptation and mitigation, different technologies and practices have been evolved.

The CSA practices are grouped under soil and land management, water management, crop management, livestock management, forestry, fishery & aquaculture and energy management. The World Bank Group (2016) has suggested broad indicators of CSA practices (Table 7.1; Chapter 7)

Introduction

The Greek names Theos and Broma mean “Gods” and “Food,” respectively. Cocoa consumption is in temperate countries. Cocoa is a beverage crop introduced for cultivation in India in the early 1965. The cocoa plant is a perennial dicotyledonous which has been under cultivation since pre-historic times. shade-loving and evergreen trees. It is native to the Amazon valley of South America and is now cultivated largely in Cote d’Ivoire, Ghana, Nigeria, Indonesia, Peru, Sierra Leon Cameroon, Equator, West Indies and Malaysia. In India, cocoa is mainly grown in Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Karnataka and. It is a rich source of fat (37%) and protein (7%). It also produces theobromin. Cocoa is used in manufacturing chocolate, cocoa powder, cocoa butter and other nutritious foods.

Introduction

It is considered as Kalpavriksha as it provides the basic necessities of life. Coco- Spanish word meaning monkey face (probably refers to the three scars on the base of the shell resembling two eyes and a nose on a monkey’s face). World Vietnam, India, Guyana, Jamaica, Indonesia, Papua New Guinea, Philippines, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Malaysia, Fiji, etc. Vietnam has the highest productivity. In India, coconut is mainly grown in Kerala, which stands first in India in both area and production of coconut, while productivity is highest in Tamil Nadu.

• World Coconut Germplasm (WCG) is located at Sipoghat, Andaman Nicobar Islands
• Coconut Development Board (CDB) is located at Cochin, Kerala
• CDB comes under Ministry of Agriculture established at Kochi in 1981, Kerala