eChapters

9.1. Production
Production means creation of value in the goods, i. e. creation of utility. Production activity helps in transforming a set of inputs into goods and services. It essentially means transforming of one set of goods into another. The output generated from production possesses greater utility than the combined inputs used in the production process. The inputs that are utilized in production of goods may be provided by the nature and/ or by other industries.
9.2. Factors of Production
These mean the production resources required to produce a given product. Fraser defined factor of production as “a group or class of original productive resources”. The factors of production have been traditionally classified as land, labour, capital and organization.
Land
According to Marshall, land means “the materials and forces which nature gives freely for man’s aid, in land and water, in air and light and heat.” In Economics the term land has a very broad meaning. It includes all free gifts of nature available to mankind viz., air, water and land. It includes all types of land surfaces such as mountains, valley, plains, forests etc. It includes all types of water resources such as rivers, oceans, etc. Thus the concept of land includes all natural resources on, above and below the earth’s surface.

Productivity automation refers to the use of technology, software, and artificial intelligence to perform tasks automatically with minimal human effort. The main goal of productivity automation is to save time, reduce manual work, increase efficiency, and improve the quality of output. In simple words, productivity automation means using machines and digital tools to do work faster and more accurately. Productivity automation is used in many areas such as business operations, communication, data management, marketing, education, and personal productivity. For example, sending automatic emails, scheduling meetings, generating reports, managing tasks, and analyzing data are all examples of productivity automation. The concept of productivity automation is based on the idea that repetitive and routine tasks should be handled by machines so that humans can focus on creative,

Abstract

The professionals carry additional moral responsibilities as compared to the general population and in society the professionals are capable of taking actions and decisions in a situation which the general public cannot take due to the lack of relevant training and knowledge. Ethics are used world-wide in large companies as well as in small businesses. Ethics is required to be promoted in the work place since it gives employees a sense of trust and worth that can help the business and employees succeed. The client places trust in the professional on the basis that the service provided will be of benefit to them. The purpose of this chapter is to study about need of ethics, types of professional ethics, moral principles of professionals and ethical decision making. Further the study is supported by case studies to make the chapter more relevant.

India has the second largest concentration of tribal population after African continent. The tribal population of India is more than 8 per cent of the total population (Anonymous 2001). However, in Maharashtra it is over 9 per cent of the state population. Among the tribal community Bhil community is the largest tribal population in Maharashtra. They live in compact areas, which are generally hilly and undulating terrain. The Bhil are primarily farmers, though they are said to be hunters since the past. Poor condition of soil, small holdings, poor resources and economic condition, traditional methods of agriculture do not provide them a regular and continuous sustenance throughout the year as such they have to depend on other subsidiary sources of earning.

Most of the tribal communities have to live under a difficult economy; the ways of their livelihood are limited and work very hard to get a bare subsistence. Thus, the tribal children from their early age are burdened with a number of economic duties, obligations and they can hardly be spared for school. Proportion of dropout is also higher among tribal children. In fact most of the tribal youth and school going children participate in farming and looking after the economic demands of the family.

Aim

To determine the reduced levels on various points on the road

To plot the profile of the road

Materials required

Dumpy level

Levelling staff

Theory

Profile leveling is the process of leveling along a fixed line to determine the elevations of the ground surface along that line. The fixed line is generally the centre line of a highway, railway, canal, sewer, etc. The profile leveling is done to determine the undulations of the ground surface. Cross-sectioning is required to determine the levels across the line along which profile leveling is done. Profile leveling should be commenced from a bench mark and should end at a bench mark, as far as possible. When the ground surface does not have many undulations, the intermediate points are fixed at a uniform interval. If the ground surface is irregular and there are abrupt changes in the ground surface, the interval may be non-uniform.

ICT refers to tools that facilitate production, transmission and processing of information. It includes the gadgets and processes to access, retrieve, store, organize, manipulate, produce, present and exchange information by electronic and automated means. According to UNESCO (2004), Information Communication Technology includes a range of technologies starting from radio, television, up to modern technologies like mobile phone, multimedia, internet, and satellite based communication systems. Modern information and communication technologies that have resulted from a breakthrough in information technology, when applied to conditions in rural areas, can help to disseminate information, improve farmers’ knowledge, increase their participation and share knowledge with others. Information Communication Technology (ICT) is one of the yardsticks to measure socio-economic development of the country and hence effective usage and management of ICTs tools is the pre-requisite for any development. Telephone is a powerful electronic device. The number of rural telephones was increased by approximately 35 per cent per annum (Jhunjhunwala and Ashok, 2005). This impressive growth in telecommunication sector is being utilized to provide information on demand to the farming community with the establishment of “Kissan Call Centers” (KCCs).  Kissan Call Centres were launched in January 2004 across the country to provide information services to the needy farmers and answer the queries made by them through telephone. In this context, a study was conducted to find out the profile of Kissan Call Centre users.

Indian seed market is one of the largest in the world and entire supply is through almost locally produced seed. The value of currently marketed seed (excluding the major share of seed saved and used by the farmers) is about USD1 billion (Rs.4500/crore). Of this, roughly a third includes the traded seed making the seed business worth about Rs. 1500 crore. This figure is likely to touch Rs. 4500 crore (USD 1 billion) crore mark by 2010. In comparison to about USD 1 billion seed business in India, the worldwide market of seed is worth about USD 21 billion. The global pesticide market is worth USD 35 billion. These values, however, are much smaller in comparison to global sale of pharmaceuticals worth USD 466 billion.

Introduction

Libraries are a center of information for the academic community of the universities in Kerala. It acts as a gateway to global knowledge. Libraries provide seamless access to the information that supports teaching, learning research, and extension. It also ensures fair access to knowledge in the academic community. The libraries fulfill the objectives of their parent organization. It caters to the educational needs of students, researchers, and faculty/Scientists of the universities for study, research, teaching, and extension activities.

The study is confined to tribal zone of Orissa, especially of Koraput district where tribes account for 49.69% of the district population. The sample SHG were selected from Sadar, Similiguda and Koraput blocks without any prejudice to their performance. At the outset, it is admitted that SHG has created a sensation among the tribes to look forward the development process. The present study ‘SHG in Techno-Economic Empowerment of Tribal Women’ has been conceived to find out inter-play of technological and economic variables that reflect in social status.

Membership status

SHG starts with the philosophy of micro-approach. Small sized group dynamics, available technology and economic opportunity linked with market structure are the perceived objectives to bring change in livelihood system. The study considered the age of SHG, present membership status, rate of discontinuance as the basic factors of SHG in tribal zone.

The study was undertaken in the state of Odisha. The state lies in between 17^o-31’ to 22^o-27’ North latitude and 81^o-27 to 87^o-30’ East longitude. It is bounded by West Bengal in the north east, Jharkhand in the north, Chatisgarh in the west, Andhra Pradesh in the south and Bay of Bengal in the east. The main features of the state is appeared inTable 3.1.

Abstract

In the present study, the village chicken rearing practices were documented in Kannur and Kozhikode districts of Kerala. A total of 128 native chicken farming households were surveyed. The system of management is extensive backyard type with the provision of shelter at night. Around 90% of the farmers had more than five years of continuous experience in village chicken farming. Majority (73.4%) of chicken present in this region was either reproduced within the household from earlier generations or added from the neighbourhoods of the same Panchayat. Most of the farmers (68.8%) consider that chickens are reared for both egg and meat; while, others (31.3%) deem that they are meant for eggs alone. As many as 87 % of the farmers cull the surplus males before one and half years of age. In contrast, majority of farmers (78.1%) do not cull female birds and usually maintain them till their death.

Biodynamic farming, with its holistic approach to agriculture, has seen significant growth and interest in recent years. This article explores profiles of notable biodynamic farms that exemplify the principles and practices of biodynamic agriculture. It highlights the successes and innovations of these farms, offering insights into their operations, challenges, and contributions to sustainable agriculture. Additionally, the article addresses the startup needs for establishing a biodynamic farm, covering essential considerations such as land selection, certification, initial investments, and resources. By examining these profiles and startup requirements, the article provides a comprehensive overview of the current state and future potential of biodynamic farming.

Nutrients are organic and inorganic complexes contained in the food and it is essential for all living organisms for their normal body development. Macronutrients are the key biopolymers such as proteins, carbohydrates and lipids, which are needed in hefty quantities to provide the bulk of the energy while micronutrients (vitamins and minerals) are required in minor levels in the body; however, are indispensable for proper growth and development of living organisms. Food that cannot provide the right blend of energy including high-quality protein, essential fats, and carbohydrates as well as vitamins and minerals definitely impair growth and development, increase the risk of death from common childhood illness, or result in life-long health consequences. Fish and fishery products form a substantial part of human diet, both of poor and wealthy. Seafood is an excellent resource for proteins, vitamins, trace elements and polyunsaturated fat (omega-3 fatty acids). Profiling of nutrients is very much essential due to the ever-increasing awareness about healthy food which finds more acceptance towards the consumption of fish and fish products owing to its special nutritional qualities.

Suppose you go to a Big Bazar to buy a shirt. You finalize the shirt and are shocked to see its price tag. The price mentioned on the sweatshirt is Rs. 2500. You ask the owner to give some discount. He offers a discount of 20%. Now just figure out, how much you will pay to the shopkeeper. Did you say 2000 rupees? You are bang on1 You will pay a sum after subtracting 20% of amount written on price tag i.e. Rs. 500 from Rs. 2500. You finally pay the shopkeeper 2500 – 500 = Rs. 2000. This example introduces you to the concept of marked price and discount. What you indirectly learned from this case is that the discount is calculated on the marked price only. Now let us assume here that the shopkeeper has purchased that sweatshirt for Rs.1600. How much money that shopkeeper has earned by selling this sweatshirt ? Now the shopkeeper has invested Rs. 1600 to buy this sweatshirt and finally sells for Rs. 2000. He makes a profit of Rs. 2000 – 1600 = Rs. 400

He earns this profit by putting in Rs. 1600. Thus his percentage profit is 100 x 400/1600 = 25%. This makes another concept of cost price and profit clear to you i.e. the price you put in from your pocket to buy a product is called cost price and the extra amount you get after selling the product is called the profit. The profit and loss percentage is calculated on cost price. Profit and loss problems are an integral part of all the competitive exams. You must understand the meaning of the basic terms used in profit and loss questions.

Introduction

Agriculture is the backbone of Indian economy. There are a number of sub sectors in the agricultural sector such as sericulture, floriculture and horticulture. Among those fields horticulture has played a dominant role in the total agricultural output throughout India. The world market has provided a good opportunity for the development of the fresh and the processed fruits industry of India. From the point of view of domestic market also, horticulture products have provided food items of nutritional value. Their cultivation has generated higher employment opportunities and higher returns to the farmers than the cereals and other agricultural cash crops (Singhal, 1995). Mango (Mangifera indica) is a stone fruit belonging to family Anacardiaceae. It is a most important fruit of India and known as the “king of tropical fruits”. Mango is cultivated in many tropical regions and distributed widely in the world. 

Introduction

Agriculture is India is mostly production oriented restricted in huge number of uneven small holdings and plays a key role in the Indian economy. Cultivation of fruits and vegetables has emerged as profitable venture and it is not only providing nutritional security but also provides a substantial employment to rural people as well as open the door for export. India is the second largest producer of vegetables, next only to China, in the world with a production of 40 million tonnes from four million hectares of land area. In India, vegetables are grown in an area 1, 10, 65 thousand hectares with the production of 1, 99,882 thousand metric tonnes. Uttar Pradesh is the largest producer of vegetable production in the country (14.80 %) followed by West Bengal (14.12 %), Madhya Pradesh (10.30%), Bihar (8.88 %), Maharashtra (8.39 %), Gujarat (7.84 %), Odisha (4.76 %) and Karnataka (4.05 %) (NHB, 2021).

Profitability in the ice cream business depends on controlling costs and protecting value across the complete product journey. This chapter examines both backend and frontend profitability levers, including yield improvement, giveaway control, manufacturing efficiency, OEE, utilities, refrigeration, quality costs, procurement, channel economics, distributor performance, route profitability, freezer productivity, and return on investment. It emphasizes that high sales volume does not necessarily guarantee sustainable profitability. SKU economics, pricing discipline, working capital, cold-chain losses, stock ageing, and trade schemes must also be managed. The chapter presents a structured profitability-improvement approach that connects manufacturing discipline, commercial strategy, operational efficiency, and financial governance to stronger contribution, EBITDA, cash flow, and sustainable business growth.

Q.1 The replicated experiment designed to compare a number of parent plants w. r. to some attribute under study is known as “Progeny row trial?

Bennett’s Hierarchy

To set the scene for this we head back to the 1970s when Claude Bennett worked as a specialist in evaluation with the extension service. He wanted to make sure that extension was collecting information that was able to illustrate the effectiveness of extension, and help extension improve its services to clients. So, he developed seven categories of criteria for evaluating extension programmes based on what he called a ‘seven link chain of events. He put these into a hierarchy literally in his article describing this-as a diagram of seven steps.