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The term plantation crops refer to those crops which are cultivated on an extensive scale in contiguous area, owned and managed by an individual or a company.

There are two groups of plantation crops namely coconut, arecanut, oil palm, cocoa, cashewnut dealt by Ministry of Agriculture and tea, coffee, rubber dealt by the Ministry of Commerce.

These are high value commercial crops of greater economic importance and play a vital role in improving Indian economy, especially in view of their export potential, employment generation and poverty alleviation particularly in rural sector.

A video camera is an optical device designed to capture videos, differing from a movie camera that records images on film. Initially developed for the television industry, video cameras are now widely utilized for various purposes.

Video cameras are primarily operated in two modes. The first mode, prominent in early broadcasting, is live television, where the camera transmits real-time images directly to a screen for immediate viewing. While a few cameras still support live television production, most live feeds are now used for security, military/tactical, and industrial applications requiring covert or remote monitoring. In the second mode, images are recorded onto a storage device for archiving or further processing. For many years, videotape was the primary format, but it has been gradually replaced by optical discs, hard disks, and eventually flash memory. Recorded video is utilized in television production and is increasingly used for surveillance and monitoring tasks, where unattended recording of a situation is necessary for later analysis.

The role of remote sensing in fishery science is one of the established fact. But today remote sensing is used generally everywhere. Success of fishing depends upon capacity for fish detection. Traditional methods like sighting, listening, smelling, locating phosphorescent patches, blue or yellow patches and oily patches in water are absolute now. Application of acoustic devices such as echo sounders, sonar’s started in 1930. Satellite remote sensing technologies have been applied recently since 1980.

In India acoustic fish finder was used in 1946. However its application has remained insignificant. No acoustic survey has been carried out either in the Arabian sea or in the Bay of Bengal. In the Indian Ocean some headway was made in 1977 and there in 1982.

Satellite remote sensing is restricted to the surface of the ocean at present. The Satellite cannot use its sensors to penetrate the column of water. The two important ocean parameters in remote sensing of fish stocks are the colour and surface temperature. Colour is used to assess and map chlorophyll productivity and through fish productivity. Temperature on the other hand helps locating thermal fronts and upwelling Zones. There by assessing nutrient abundance as well as fish abundance.

In the Indian waters, air craft remote sensing has been used for locating shoots of pelagic fish like oil sardines and mackerels in the Arabian sea using colour and bioluminescence only. The signals help distinguish shoals by species and estimate the weight of the schools. Ocean colour map also help in locating tuna schools, which prefer clear oceanic waters as against the turbid.

Genus : Persea 
Species : americana Mill.
Family : Lauraceae
Chromosome No. : 2n =24

Horticulturally avocado (Persea americana) is a new fruit and is often considered to be  one of the most   nutritive of present day fruit crops. Genus Persea, name has been derived from ancient Greek name of an Egyptian tree with sweet fruits  derived probably from Perseus. Avocado belongs to the family Lauraceae, has 47 genera and about 1900 species. Genus Persea has some 150 species of tropical evergreen trees. Its discovery in the new world has contributed much to the human diet. Fruit is a rich source of fat (27%), 2 per cent protein content is higher than in any other fresh fruit, mineral like Ca, Cl, Fe, Mg, P, K, Na and sulphur are also higher that makes avocado as a useful food which produces more of base forming elements rather than acid forming elements that are found more only in nut crops.

Introduction
 
Safety is one of the first, and most important, things to consider when we decide to apply the pesticides indoors to treat or prevent a pest infestation. If proper safety measures are not followed, the outcome may be harmful or fatal. Perhaps all of us more or less aware about the fact that there is no pesticide which is “absolutely safe” to human or other non target organisms. But we may call some are safer than others.

We usually use pesticide of various kinds in and around our home. We use these products to control insects (insecticides), termites (termiticides), rodents (rodenticides), fungi (fungicides) and microbes (disinfectants).

The urinary organs include the kidneys, ureters, bladder and urethra (Fig. 4-5 A).

Kidneys

The kidneys are two compound tubular glands situated retroperitoneally in the sublumbar region. They are elongated, the right kidney being elliptical in outline and the left one slightly oval. They are red brown in colour. The weight of each kidney varies from 500 to 700 gm, the left kidney being about 25 gm heavier than the right kidney. The outer surface of the bovine kidneys is marked by polygonal lobes which are about twenty in number and are separated from each other by deep grooves (fissures). The grooves are filled in by fat. Both the kidneys are embedded in a large amount of perirenal fat termed as adipose capsule.

1. LAND REQUIREMENTS

Tinospora cordifolia (Thunb.) Miers (family: Menispermaceae) commonly known as “Amrita” or” Guduchi” of “Giloy” is a climbing shrub found throughout India. T. cordifolia has high medicinal value in the world and is also the number one recommended natural herb for the Indian system of medicine (ISM) which has been used over centuries to treat various diseases. The roots and stems contain several secondary metabolites having curative properties. The species is endemic to India and is common throughout tropical and subtropical zones at an altitude of 600 m.

Species

• Tinospora cordifolia (Willd.) Miers ex Hook. F & Thoms
• Cocculus cordifolius DC.
• Menispermum cardifolium Willd
• T. glabra (N. Burm.) Merr.

Morphological characteristics

It is a big climber that grows over the highest trees in the forest and produces aerial roots up to 10 metres long. It’s a sprawling climbing shrub with a slew of elongated twining branches. Giloy leaves are simple, exstipulate, alternating, with long petioles up to 15 cm long, pulvinate, and roundish at the base and apex, with the basal one being longer and twisted partially and halfway around. Oval-cordate or roughly oval lamina, 15-20 cm long and 10-15 cm wide, 7 nerved and deeply cordate at base, glabrous above, membranous, whitish yellow with a conspicuous reticulum beneath.

ACCELERATED EROSION: Erosion in excess of natural rates, usually as a result of anthropogenic activities.

Intoduction Cybertaxonomy is an abbreviation for "cyber-enabled taxonomy." It shares the traditional goals of taxonomy: to explore, discover, characterize, name, and classify species; to study their phylogenetic relationships; and to map their ecological associations and geographic distributions. To improve the speed with which we can help in providing taxonomic products and information, there is undoubtedly a requirement to move taxonomic endeavour into the digital era. Currently, the rate at which we record and maintain morphological information that enables species discovery is the primary constraint on taxonomic productivity (Lasalle, et al., 2009). Cybertaxonomy is one attempt to accomplish this complex goal. Cybertaxonomy employs a collection of electronic tools to assist and equip the science of taxonomy in accelerating species invention and the implementation of taxonomic expertise in biodiversity investigation.Cybertaxomy can yield results more quickly and efficiently than ever before thanks to adoption of digital technologies and cybertaxonomy.

1.1 Introduction

Poultry is one of the fastest-growing areas of India’s agricultural industry, with an annual growth rate of around eight percent. Over a span of four decades, the chicken industry in India has seen a paradigm shift in structure and operation, transforming from a simple backyard occupation to a significant commercial agri-based enterprise. Constant efforts in upgrading, modifying, and using new technologies opened the path for the multiplication and diversification of poultry industries. The expansion is not just quantitative, but also qualitative, sophisticated, and productive. This transition has necessitated substantial expenditures and increases in breeding, hatching, raising, and processing. The rise of the poultry industry in India is also characterised by the expansion of chicken farms.

Introduction

Resources must be managed effectively to achieve maximum sustainable agricultural production from limited natural resources. Many of the resources that agriculture depends on (such as water and land) are finite and need to be well managed for long term sustainability. In most cases, this means avoiding adverse effects on the society and environment. With the development of agricultural sectors, the utilization patterns of natural resources in agriculture are important concern for policy makers in present climate change scenario. Unlike other production activities, agricultural activities also utilize factor resources to produce several marketable products or services. The way the natural resources are utilized in agriculture and its concern for society and environment, plays a vital role in economic viability and ecological sustainability of agriculture.

There are several conventional methodologies to estimate the level of profit and efficiency of production system at enterprise level. Only marketable factors are considered in conventional methods keeping the non-marketable component of production system away. Non-marketable component of a production system includes various social and environmental dimensions of it. Nammalwar (1997) has explained the concept of environmentally sound and sustainable enterprises, which include the physical resources, ecological resources, human use value, quality of life values with either way impact of agriculture and environment. In recent years, non-marketable dimensions of agricultural activities have been given importance because of its concern for the environment and society. This chapter provides a methodology that incorporates non-marketable component of agricultural enterprise besides its marketable component. The Resource Cost Ratio (RCR) approach is a modified methodology developed by Debnath et al. (2010) from Domestic Resource Cost Ratio (DRCR) that Morris (1990) has applied at macro-economic level to determine the comparative advantage between countries.

Climate change referred as, a change of climate which is attributed directly or indirectly to human activity that alters the composition of the global atmosphere and which is in addition to natural climate variability observed over comparable time periods (IPCC, 2001). In other words, it is any long term conspicuous deviation from usual prevailing climate bringing variations in normal temperature, rainfall, atmospheric circulation with abnormal expression in extreme climate such as floods, droughts, extreme temperature etc.

In recent years, rainfall pattern is changing and the sustainability of irrigated rice ecosystem is threatened by water crisis. Tanks are often not filling or partially filling due to insufficient rains. In order to safeguard the food security, it is necessary to preserve previous water resources and to utilize the limited water most efficiently. In this regard alternate ways of growing rice using minimum water must be explored. Farmers are adamant to grow paddy crop to meet their domestic needs of food and fodder. In such situation Jalasri method can became one of the alternative for paddy cultivation. The Jalasri method is an appropriate system aimed at reducing the cost of cultivation, saving irrigation water, besides increasing grain yield significantly. Earlier Jalasri method was popular as Madagascar method of paddy cultivation.

Genus : Achras /Manilkara
Species : sapota L. zapota (Mill.) Forberg 
Family : Sapotaceae
Chromosome No. : 2n=26

Thomas Firmingaer, an English horticulturist while in India in praise of sapota wrote ‘a more luscious, cool and agreeable fruit is not to be within this or perhaps any other country in the world’. A French botanist described sapota as ‘the sweet perfumes of honey, jasmine and lily of the valley’. In view of these the fruit is considered to be one of the best fruits of tropical America, although cannot be compared with the other more popular fruits of the region i.e. pineapple and cherimoya. In many tropical parts of the world this delicious fruit is held in high esteem.

ND is a viral disease of poultry, wild and cage birds characterized by marked variation in morbidity, mortality, signs and lesions. Reported in 235 species of birds.

A disease of primary importance and concern worldwide which causes continuous massive economic loss. It is a reportable disease in many countries of the world.

Occurrence

Species: All birds susceptible. Temporary conjunctivitis may develop in people who come in close contact with NDV for the first time.

Commonly used terms in swine husbandary

Morphological characteristics

A large elegant evergreen tree, grows up to 30 m. high, with a clean, cylindrical bole of 15 m. and a girth of 4.5 m. Bark is rough, whitish to grey, peeling off in thick round flakes. Leaves are coriaceous, Ovate to Oblong, entire (Leaf falls in March, new foliage appears in April-May, the second flush of foliage starts after rains, in October to December.) Fruit is a Capsule, ovoid, pale brown, fleshy, 8 to 11cm long, and 3.5 to 6 cm in Diameter. 1 seeded, reddish white, filled with fat. Ripens during June to July.

Floral characteristics

Flowers are bisexual, about 2 cm across, white, slightly fragrant, arranged in panicles. Panicle is robust, multi-branched, up to 15 cm long and drooping. Fruit is capsules, 4-6 cm X 2-4 cm in size, pale brown, fleshy, hard when dry, splitting by 3 valves when ripe.

Distribution

A slow-growing species, Endemic & found primarily in the South west coast evergreen forests, upto an altitude of 750 m, and also occasionally in secondary evergreen dipterocarp forest in the states of Karnataka, Kerala & Tamil Nadu.

AIRBORNE SENSING: Remote sensing from an airplane. (Related words: airphoto, aerial)

Apoptosis is triggered by extrinsic and intrinsic stimuli as radiation, oxidative stress and genotoxic chemicals. It is defined by characteristic changes in the nucleus morphology including chromatin condensation and fragmentation, overall cell shrinkage/rounding and formation of apoptotic cell bodies. Among the many markers of apoptosis, DNA fragmentation is considered a hallmark. The DNA ladder assay described here is a simple, sensitive, cost-effective and rapid method for estimating apoptosis in cells.

Isolation of Genomic DNA

Genomic DNA from primary cells culture of PMNC and splenocytes of rats is isolated by using standard phenol-chloroform DNA isolation protocol of Sambrook and Russel (2001) as described below:

1. Preparation of primary cells culture of different cells, namely-PBMNCs, thymocytes and splenocytes form Wistar rats and viability checked by trypan blue dye exclusion test.

2. 106 cells/ml of primary cell culture is used and seeded in 24 well culture plates containing along with treatment with xenobiotics at different µM concentration.

3. Cell culture plates are incubated in CO2 incubator at 37°C with 5% CO2 for 12 hrs.

4. The cells are collected in 1.5 ml of micro centrifuge tube and centrifuged at 3200 rpm for 10 min at 4°C; supernatant is discarded and pellet is washed with PBS (pH 7.2).

5. DNA extraction buffer (500 µl/tube) is added in tubes. Gently tap to disperse the cell pellet in extraction buffer and keep in water bath for 1.0 hr at 37 °C (it is to ensure that pellet is completely suspended so that cells are accessible to SDS and Proteinase K).

6. 10 % SDS is added (20 µl/ml) to cell suspension and the tubes are gently mixed by inverting the tube. The contents of tube become viscous which indicates lysis of cells. After that sample is handled gently from onward to avoid shearing of DNA.

7. Proteinase K (15 µl) of 20 mg Proteinase K/ml of buffer is added in tubes in two pulse i.e. half the requirement is added to tube in 1st pulse, mixed gently end to end and kept in water bath at 50°C. After 3-4 hrs, the second pulse of the remaining amount of Proteinase K is added and tubes are incubated at 50°C overnight.

8. Equal volume of equilibrated phenol (Tris saturated phenol pH> 7.8 ) is added in the tubes next day morning. Mix the contents of tube gently by inverting the tube for 15 min till a light coffee coloured uniform solution without any balls of phenol is formed and then centrifuge at 3400 rpm for 15 min.