eChapters

Understanding focus is a crucial technique in photography, especially for beginners. If your photos aren’t properly focused, they’ll turn out blurry even with perfect camera settings. The ease of focusing depends on your subject it’s simpler for stationary objects like landscapes but more challenging for moving subjects like birds in flight. This guide will cover all the essentials for achieving sharp, focused images.

What is Focus

In every photo, there’s a plane of focus, an area that can be as sharp as possible. Imagine this plane as a window intersecting your scene; any object touching this window is “in focus.” Adjusting this plane to get your subject sharp is known as focusing. Modern lenses achieve this by moving internal glass elements to alter the light’s optical path. You can also change the focus plane by moving the lens physically, a technique used in macro photography with extension tubes.

Biodynamic farming, with its holistic approach to agriculture, has seen significant growth and interest in recent years. This article explores profiles of notable biodynamic farms that exemplify the principles and practices of biodynamic agriculture. It highlights the successes and innovations of these farms, offering insights into their operations, challenges, and contributions to sustainable agriculture. Additionally, the article addresses the startup needs for establishing a biodynamic farm, covering essential considerations such as land selection, certification, initial investments, and resources. By examining these profiles and startup requirements, the article provides a comprehensive overview of the current state and future potential of biodynamic farming.

Objectives of Plant Pathology
The key objectives of plant pathology include:
1. Understanding Disease Etiology: Identifying the causal organisms or factors responsible for plant diseases.
2. Disease Diagnosis: Developing tools and techniques for early diagnosis of plant diseases.
3. Pathogenesis: Studying how pathogens cause disease in plants and how plants respond to infection.
4. Disease Management: Creating effective and sustainable strategies to control and prevent plant diseases.
Definition and Scope of Plant Pathology
Plant pathology, also known as phytopathology, is the study of plant diseases caused by pathogens (infectious agents) and environmental conditions (non-infectious agents). It encompasses the diagnosis of plant diseases, the mechanisms of disease development, and the development of management strategies. A widely accepted definition of plant pathology is provided by George N. Agrios (2005), who defined it as:
“Plant pathology is the study of the living entities and environmental conditions that cause diseases in plants, the mechanisms by which they induce disease in plants, the interactions between the plant and the pathogen, and the methods of preventing or managing plant diseases.”
Plant pathology integrates principles from microbiology, botany, mycology, bacteriology, virology, and genetics to address plant health issues. It is a critical field for ensuring food security, agricultural sustainability, and the stability of ecosystems

In conventional agriculture, spatial variability over the landscape is ignored and fertilizers, herbicides, insecticides, fungicides etc. are applied at a uniform rate throughout the crop field. Precision Farming emphasizes on the infield variability which is first recognized, located, quantified and recorded, then managed by applying farm inputs  in specific amounts at specific time and at specific locations.

A. Answer the following.

Q.1.     What are the different enzymes used to couple with antibodies to prepare conjugates for use in ELISA?
Ans.     HRPO, Alkaline phosphate, b galactosidase, penicillinase etc.

Q.2.     What does it indicate if any woman has HI titre of > 10 for rubella ?
Ans.     It means that the woman is immune to rubella. If it is less than 10 it indicates that the woman needs to be immunized against rubella.

Angier, Natalie (2009-11-09). “Pigs Prove to Be Smart, if Not Vain”. The New York Times (New York, New York, US: The New York Times Company).

Anonymous 2002-03. Annual Report of Animal Husbandry and Veterinary Department, Directorate of Animal. Husbandry and Veterinary Department, Government of Mizoram, Pp 8

Broom, Donald M.; Hilana Sena, Kiera L. Moynihan (2009-11). “Pigs learn what a mirror image represents and use it to obtain information”. Animal Behaviour 78 (5): 1037-1041.

Burkholder JoAnn; Bob Libra, Peter Weyer, Susan Heathcote, Dana Kolpin, Peter S. Thorne, Michael Wichman (2007) Impacts of Waste from Concentrated Animal Feeding Operations on Water Quality. Environ Health Perspectives. 115:308-312.

Chandrashekhar Sahukar. (2000). Piggery India Year Book, pp. 343-347.

Christianson, L.L, Bane D.P, Curtis S.E, Hall W.F, Muehling A.J, and Riskowski G.L. 1989. Swine Care Handbook for Pork Producers Using Environmentally Controlled Housing. Des Moines: National Pork Producers Council.

Crucik Shank, R et al (1965). Medical Microbiology, ELBS, London.

Curtis, S.E., et al. 1988. Guide for the Care and Use of Agricultural Animals in Agricultural Research and Teaching. Champaign III, Consortium for Developing a Guide for the Care and Use of Agricultural Animals in Agricultural Research and Teaching.

Dalton, C. and. Kilgour R.1984. Livestock Behaviour; A Practical Guide. Granada Publishing, Lt., Frogmore, St. albans, Herts, U.K.

Daszak et al (2000). Emerging Infectious Diseases of Wildlife — Threats to Biodiversity and Human Health. Science Vol 287 pp 443-449

Delgado, C., Rosegrant, M., Steinfeld, H., Ehui, S., Courbois, C., 1999. Livestock to 2020. The next food revolution. Food, Agriculture, and the Environment Discussion Paper28. IFPRI, FAO, ILRI

DeShazer, J.A and ONil erhults D.G.1982. Energy Demand in Livestock Production. Livestock Environment, Proceedings of 2nd International Livestock Environment Symposium. American Society of Agricultural Engineers, St. Joseph, MO.

Donham K. (1998). “The impact of industrial swine production on human health”. In Thu K, Durrenberger E. Pigs, Profits, and Rural Communities. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press. pp. 73-83.

Eastman, Wilbur F. The Canning, Freezing, Curing & Smoking of Meat, Fish & Game, Garden Way Publishing, 1975, ISBN 0-88266-045-4

Embog, H.D. et at (1996). How the Danish surveillance system for Salmonella has influenced the microbiological quality of swine carcase meat. Proc. Int. Pig. Vet. Soc.14:714.

FAO (1983). Integrated crops and livestock in West Africa. Animal Production and Health paper. Rome, No. 41. Foodand Agriculture Organisation of the United Nation.

FAO (1998a). Farm Animal Genetic Resources: Biodiversity for food and agriculture. Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nation.

FAO (1998b). Local animal breeds still threatened by extinction, No. 4. Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nation.

FAO (2001). Bulletin of Statistics. Vol.2, No.1. Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations.

In 1868, Johann Friedrich Miescher, a young Swish medical student got excited with an acidic substance that he isolated from pus cells obtained from bandages used to dress human wounds. To obtain large quantities of pus for his experiment, Miescher began purchasing used bandages from surgical clinics in Tuebingen, Germany. He separated pus cells from bandages and treated the cells with pepsin, a proteolytic enzyme that he isolated from stomach of pigs. After pepsin treatment, he recovered an acidic substance that was named as “nuclein” by him. This nuclein was unusual in the sense that it was rich in nitrogen and phosphorous, two elements known at that time to coexist only in certain types of fat. Miescher’s paper on this investigation was published in 1871. At that time, importance of Miescher’s nuclein was not fully appreciated. Even the existence of polynucleotide chains, the key component of the acidic material in Miescher’s nuclein was not documented until 1940s. The role of nucleic acid in storing and transmitting genetic information remained un-established until 1944 and the double-helix structure of DNA was not discovered until 1953 by James Watson and Francis Crick. Even in 1953, many geneticists remained skeptical to accept the role of nucleic acid as the genetic information carrier rather than proteins as nucleic acids exhibited less structural variability than the proteins (Snustad et al., 1997).

1. FORAGE LEGUMES

1.1. Isolation

BASIC PRINCIPLE FOR TREATMENT OF POISONING

Introduction

All the toxicants or poisons including various toxins causing various toxicoses or poisonings in animals comprise two major classes. Firstly, poisons having specific an tidotes and secondly, those having no specific antidotal therapy and require symptomatic and supportive therapy for the treatment of their poisonings. The adage "Treat the patient, not the poison" is the most basic principle of clini cal toxicology. Thus, in cases of both type of toxic conditions, an immediate attention is required for the maintenance of vital functions particularly cardiopulmonary function by providing supportive or therapeutic measures before institution of antidotal or symptomatic therapy. Vi tal signs and important reflexes should regularly be monitored to judge the response to therapy and progress of recovery. As per need of the situation, a flexile step wise practical approach may be opted by veterinarians for the diagnosis and treatment poisonings in animals.

1. Success Story of Rural Youth in Dairying
 
M.S. Nataraju, P. Sunil Kumar and R. Shashidhar

There is a proverb in Kannada that “Koti Vidyeginthaloo Meti Vidyee Yee Melu” means - among all the professions for livelihood on this earth agriculture is the best profession for better livelihood.  This proverb suits Sri. Vasudeva Indraje, resident of Yenmoor village in Sulliya Taluk of Dakshina Kannada Dist. in Karnataka State. Sri. Vasudeva Indraje is a role model for today’s youth, who are neglecting agriculture and migrating to cities with an illusion of making a quick buck.  Hailing from an agricultural family his moorings was in agriculture and allied activities.  After passing out from SSLC he did not seek to continue the studies but showed interest in pursuing some small business.  Along with his younger brother he started a cold drink house in Balila and made good profit from it.  When it appeared that the business was seeing a downward trend he came out of the business and invested the money in farming land.

Sri. Vasudev along with his friend visited RUDSETI, Ujire and enquired about the training programmes. After going through his interests Director suggested him to apply for Dairy and Vermicompost training programme.  Later, he was selected and undergone Dairy and Vermicompost training programme in the year 2007.  During his training programme along with the technical inputs regarding the Dairy management he also learnt about different soft skills like how to develop entrepreneurship competencies? How to develop Self Confidence? How to avail Institutional Credit? etc.

Genus : Punica 
Species : granatum L.
Family : Punicaceae
Chromosome No. : 2n = 16,18

Pomegranate has originated in Afghanistan and Iran the abode of prophet Mohammad and for very long has been associated with grape and fig and is still held in higher esteem. Acknowledging the multi usefulness of pomegranate Prophet Mohammad said ‘Eat the pomegranate sententiously for it progress the system of envy and hatred’. The crop was very much in demand and liked by the inhabitants prior to the days of Mohammad in the Orient, as pomegranate has something special in the form of refreshing which the people of hot arid region like and adore enormously. The ancient Semitic name rimmon was adopted by Arabs as rumman. The Potruguese roma or roman was formed from rumman. The present botanical name Punica granatum has been derived from Roman name malum punicum (apple of Carthage) and granatum.

ABSTRACT

DNA fingerprinting is increasingly being used for identification of varieties, quantification of similarity between varieties and study of genetic diversity available in the population.

This is all the more important in crops where morphological variability is less or one variety is known by different names or different varieties are known by same name.

DNA fingerprinting using RAPD method has been standardized for tapioca. Dellaporta method has been used for extraction of DNA and amplification was done following William’s method. This technique has been used for molecular characterisation of accessions and identification of duplicates in the germplasm maintained at Central Tuber Crops Research Institute, Thiruvananthapuram. This technology has been extended for DNA fingerprinting of released varieties and also some of the elite breeding lines.

Eleven varieties released from the institute were fingerprinted using a few primers, which showed high polymorphism in tapioca. One single primer gave distinct banding pattern for all the 11 varieties and it was capable of earmarking each variety.

Individual variety was finger printed for 20 different primers and the results were documented. This technique is being extended to promising land races as well. DNA fingerprinting will be useful for protecting Plant Breeders’ Right as well as Farmers’ Right in the new Patent Regime.

Horse

The ovaries in mare are bean shaped and much larger than those of cow. Each is about 7 to 8 cm long and about 3 to 4 cm thick. It weighs about 70 to 80 gm. These are situated in the sublumbar region under the fourth or fifth lumbar vertebra. They are usually in contact with the roof of the abdomen. The average distance of ovaries from the vulvar orifice is about 50 to 55 cm in the average sized mare. The notch on the free border leads to a depression, the ovulation fossa where ovulation occurs.

The uterine tubes are shorter and more flexuous in mare than those in cow. Each is about 20 to 30 cm long. At its ovarian end it is wider with a diameter of about 4 to 8 mm and becomes narrower at its uterine end with a diameter of about 2 to 3 mm.

The uterus in mare is situated partly in abdomen and partly in pelvis. The horns of the uterus are usually pressed against the sublumbar muscles by the intestine. When moderately distended they are about 25 cm long. The junction of the uterine horns with the body of the uterus is abrupt. The average length of the body is about 18 to 20 cm and its diameter is about 10 cm when moderately distended. The cervix is about 5.0 to 7.5 cm in length and 3.5 to 4.0 cm in diameter. The cervical canal is straight. The mucous membrane of the uterus has no cotyledons.

The vagina in mare is shorter than that in cow. It measures about 15 to 20 cm in length and 10 to 12 cm in diameter when slightly distended. Most of the vagina is retroperitoneal.

Site-specific weed control technologies practiced in precision farming are defined as machinery or equipment embedded with technologies that detect weeds growing in a crop and take action to maximise the chances of successfully controlling them taking into account predefined factors such as economics.Some of the commercial hardware and software developed for precision agriculture practices comprise tools for weed mapping and control software that adapts spraying to local weed occurrence. However, few farmers have adopted sitespecific weed management, although several studies have shown that weed occurrence and density varies significantly within a farm or a field. Site-specific weed control techniques have gained interest in the precision farming community over the years. Managing weeds on a subfield level requires measuring the varying density of weeds within a field. Decision models aid in the selection and adjustment of the treatments, depending on the weed infestation. The weed control can be done either with herbicides or mechanically. A site-specific herbicide application technology can save large amounts of herbicides. Mechanical weed control techniques adapting to the weed situation in the field are applicable to a wide spectrum of crops.

A system for the discrimination of different weed species and crops from images is done which generates weed maps automatically. Models for the yield effect of weeds are developed and applied in on-farm-research experimental setups. Economic weed thresholds are derived and used for an herbicide application with a patch sprayer.Herbicide use has not eliminated weed problems in agriculture and the need for manual weed removal is still an issue within specialty crop systems, particularly during the first several weeks of crop emergence when competition for resources is greatest.

Precision agriculture is a powerful technology with potentially important applications to weed management. However, growers should remember good agronomic practices, including preventing weed infestations, managing herbicides wisely to prevent resistance, and minimizing environmental impact associated with weed management. Weeds, and methods used to control weeds, can have negative economic and environmental impacts. With precision agriculture, growers can take advantage of the patchy nature of weeds by targeting management efforts only where they are needed instead of wasting expensive and potentially hazardous inputs where weeds are not present. Weeds are patchy because weed spread, survival, and reproduction are variable within a field and over time. Weed patches stay in about the same place from year to year, even though weed density within a patch may vary

Diagnostic techniques are routinely used for diagnosing different surgical conditions. The most frequently used imaging techniques in veterinary practice are radiography and ultrasonography. Radiography and ultrasonography are not suitable for each organ in large animals. In small animals most organs are suited to ultrasound images except bones and gascontaining structures such as lungs etc. Bone and gas reflect ultrasound and do not allow the sound waves to form image therefore radiography gives better diagnostic images for these organs. The liver, spleen, kidneys, prostate, gravid uterus and fluid containing organs like urinary bladder, gall bladder and major blood vessels can be better imaged with ultrasound. In buffaloes in surgical section important clinical conditions relate to urinary and digestive systems, mammary gland and perineal area.

1. Urinary System: In bovine, the cases of obstructive urolithiasis are commonly observed. These types of cases are more common in bullocks and in buffalo calves. In these cases radiography is not so useful. Sonography can be tried to take the image of ruptured urethra in bullock and can be compared with radiography. Due to ruptured urethra there will be accumulation of urine in the s/c tissue of prepuce. Due to fluid density the image will be radioopaque and will appear white and no detail of the organ can be seen. The ultrasonogram (USG) will show images of glans penis and its coverings. Different diameters of urethra and a point of rupture just behind to glans penis can be make out. Due to obstruction, The B.calves either will pass drop wise urine or there will be complete stoppage of the urine. These cases can also be easily diagnosed by ultrasonography.

Understanding the key terms in plant pathology is crucial for grasping the basic concepts and principles of how diseases develop and how they can be managed. This chapter will define and explain the terminology commonly used in plant pathology to facilitate a clearer understanding of the subject.
• Adjuvants: Additives mixed with fungicides to enhance their performance. These are usually inactive substances, such as surfactants, that improve how the chemical spreads, sticks, or penetrates plant surfaces by altering surface tension.
• Antagonism: A relationship where one microorganism harms or inhibits the growth of another, often through competition or by producing harmful substances.
• Antagonists: Organisms that can suppress or interfere with the growth of other microorganisms, often used in biological control to reduce plant diseases.
• Antibiosis: A form of microbial warfare where one organism produces a chemical that negatively affects another organism’s growth or survival.
• Appressorium: A swollen structure at the tip of a fungal germ tube or hypha that helps the fungus stick to and break into the plant’s surface.

Introduction
Communication is essential to all organizational functions, including management, operations, and interpersonal relationships. However, even with advanced communication channels, message distortion remains a prevalent issue. Message distortion occurs when the content of a message is altered in its meaning or significance from the sender to the receiver. Understanding the factors that contribute to message distortion is crucial for enhancing communication efficacy in any context.
In this chapter, we delve into the multifaceted nature of message distortion, exploring how various psychological, social, environmental, and organizational factors contribute to it. Additionally, examples from real-life scenarios, research studies, and insights from communication theories provide context and illustrate these factors.
1. Psychological Factors
Psychological factors are internal influences on an individual’s perception, interpretation, and reaction to messages. They include emotions, attitudes, expectations, and cognitive biases.
• Emotions: Emotional states such as anger, happiness, fear, or anxiety can distort message interpretation. For instance, a team member might misinterpret constructive criticism as personal disapproval if they are feeling anxious. This is supported by research showing that heightened emotional states can impair judgment and understanding, leading to miscommunication (Mehrabian, 1971).

Abstract

Pollinators provide key services to both natural and agricultural ecosystems. Agricultural productivity depends, in part, on pollinator populations from adjacent semi natural habitats. Honey bees are the primary pollinators of mustard crop because it is highly attractive to bees and provides both nectar and pollen. Studies were conducted to assess the diversity and relative abundance of pollinators in mustard (Brassica juncea) of 2011-2012 at Apiary Garden, G.B Pant University of Agriculture & Technology, Pantnagar.A total of 19 insect visitors belonging to order Hymenoptera (15) and Diptera (4) were found to visit the mustard blossoms. Hymenopteran visitors belonged to six families namely Apidae (6), Scollidae (3), Xylocopidae (1), Halictidae (2), Magachilidae (1), Anthophoridae (1) and Sphecidae (1). Lepidopteran visitors belonged to families Pieridae (1). Besides this some Dipteran visitor belonged to families these were Syrphidae (3) and Muscidae (1) were observed on mustard flowers. From the family Apidae, honeybees (Apis mellifera, Apis dorsata, Apis cerana indica and Apis florea), Ceratina sexmaculata, Xylocopa iridipennis and stingless bee Tetragonula laeviceps family Apidae. Scolia (Discolia) binolata, Campsomeriella collaris and C. annulata of family Scollidae, the Alkali Bees (Nomiasp.) and Halictussp. of Halictidae, Leaf cutter bee (Megachile disjuncta) of Megachilidae, the digger bee (Anthophorasp.) of Anthophoridae and Sphex sp. of Sphecidae. Three species from family Syrphidae (Syrphus corollae, Episyrphus valtiatus and Eristalis tenax) and one species from Muscidae (Musca domestica) visited the mustard flowers. The abundance (percentage of insect/m2/2min.) of Hymenopterans were maximum (79.97 %) followed by the Dipterans (16.15 %) and others (3.73 %). In Hymenopterans, the honeybees (Apis bees) were observed maximum (57.55 %) followed by non Apis bees (21.06 %) and the scolid wasp (1.35 %).

Genus : Passiflora 
Species : edulis Sims.
Family : Passifloraceae
Chromosome No. : 2n = 18

The passion fruit (Passiflora edulis) is another fascinating tropical fruit besides having both dessert and processing qualities, the crop also has a big multi coloured very attractive flower and fruit with district taste  and flavour. Passion fruit is very popular in number of tropical and subtropical countries. Despite having variability at the species level the commercial development has not progressed as desired which is evident from the fact that the available commercial types are highly susceptible to diseases, lack of adaptation to soil and climate extremes, high establishment costs growing management problems  harvesting and market costs have forced the grower to focus on other remunerative crops. Passion fruit is said to be good source of minerals especially calcium, phosphorus and iron, vitamin A, niacin and riboflavin.