eChapters

ABSTRACT

Punjab is the richest state in the country in term of per capita income and has earned the name as food bowl of the country by putting 84-85 per cent of its geographical area under highly intensive, technical and mechanical agriculture with cropping intensity as high as 185 per cent and contributing more than one third of rice and half of its wheat production to the central pool of food reserve. The food grain production in the state has increased approximately twelve times in a span of about 50 years after independence from 20 lac tones in 1950-51 to 234.89 lakh tonnes in 2002-2003. Achieving this high productivity without caring for natural resources has resulted in a considerable loss in the inherent production potential and deterioration of soil health. As a result, man is getting serious warning signals in the form of lowering of water table, drought, high rate of environmental pollution, extremes of climatic parameters, etc. Agriculture in the state has become too intensive, wasteful and reckless and the radical changes are required to maintain the balance. Therefore, there is a strong thinking to diversify farming in the state to maintain the sustainability of the whole system. The state government is stressing hard to save the natural resources through the diversification in traditional crop rotation and adopt resource-conserving measures.

Barleria L. (Acanthaceae) is a pantropical genus of herbs and shrubs comprising about 300 species, occurring mainly in Africa and Asia. In India, the genus is represented by about 32 species of which 24 are endemic to India.  About 80 % of the species are found in Peninsular India. Many species of Barleria are of ornamental value and can be grown for their foliage and showy colorful flowers. There are certain indigenous species which show good growth performance in cultivation and have economic importance as ornamentals. Moreover, some species fall under IUCN categories of threatened plants which need immediate attention for their conservation. Considering the horticultural importance especially in landscape gardening and rarity of Barlerias, various species found in India are collected and cultivated through various methods in the Botanical Garden of Shivaji University, Kolhapur.

Livestock sector plays a vital role in the welfare of India’s rural population by acting as an important source of income and employment in the rural sector (Dastagiri, 2004). India possesses the largest livestock population in the world and ranks first with (520.6 million), and accounts for the largest number of cattle (world share 16.1%), buffaloes (57.9%), second largest number of goats (16.7%) and third highest number of sheep (5.7%) in the world (FAOSTAT) and sustaining all these in less than 5% of world’s and one-third of Asia’s agricultural land area (MOA, 2003).

1. Introduction

Poultry industry in India stands out as a major success story. It’s phenomenal that India’s poultry production whichstarted justas a backyard venture before 1960s, has shaped up into a proven agribusiness, where its annual turnover exceeds Rs 30,000 crores. Current global ranking of India is that of number three, in terms of egg production (behind China [1st] and USA [2nd]), and of18th position in Broiler production. Today, Poultry is one of the fastest growing industries of the agricultural sector in India at present. The annual growth of broilers and egg production is 8-10% compared to 1-2% for production of agricultural crops [3].

Poultry production forms an important Agrarian Avenue providing valuable animal proteins for the fast-growing human population of the developing India, with promises of additional income to small and marginal farmers.Rural and backyard poultry farming is very common among landless and marginal farmer families in India and is a rewarding source of additional income. It involves low investment with high returns which can be easily operated by women, children and elder members of the farm families. Poor households generate good income through backyard poultry farming which provides meat and egg rich in protein and energy. Agriculture including animal husbandry provides 30-40% employment in terms of man/woman days in a year. Scarcity of land holdings, land fragmentation and seasonal agriculture aresome of the reasons that crop production only is unable to provide cent percent employment to the rural youths (men and women).

Promotion Mix

The main objectives of promotion mix are to seek buyer’s attention towards the product with a view to : (1) arouse consumer interest in the product (2) inform consumer about the product availability (3) inform the consumer as how is it different from others.

Abstract
The global population is projected to reach 9 billion by 2050, with rural youth (aged 15–34) in developing countries of Africa and Asia facing significant challenges like unemployment, poverty, and limited access to resources such as land, credit, and education. Despite agriculture's potential to provide livelihoods and contribute to 32% of global employment, rural youth are increasingly disengaged, perceiving farming as unattractive due to its image of drudgery and lack of profitability. Agri-preneurship, blending agriculture with entrepreneurial skills, offers a solution by fostering innovative, profitable farm businesses. Initiatives like India’s ARYA program and private efforts such as the Green Shoots Foundation promote skill development, encouraging youth to pursue agriculture through training, microfinance, and market linkages. Empowering rural youth with entrepreneurial competencies can enhance food security, reduce rural outmigration, and support sustainable development.
Keywords: Agri-preneurship, Rural Youth, Agriculture, Skill Development, Food Security, Sustainable Development, Rural Outmigration, Entrepreneurial Competencies, Employment, Market Linkagesk

Pest and pathogen incidence is a natural occurrence that frequently goes unreported. However, they become a concern when their spectra expand and cause significant losses. Chemical pesticides are now commonly used in agricultural techniques to lessen the impact of such severe damages. Without a question, the use of chemical pesticides has put human health, ecological health, and sustainability at danger.

In recent years, rainfall pattern is changing and the sustainability of irrigated rice ecosystem is threatened by water crisis. Tanks are often not filling or partially filling due to insufficient rains. In order to safeguard the food security, it is necessary to preserve previous water resources and to utilize the limited water most efficiently. In this regard alternate ways of growing rice using minimum water must be explored. Farmers are adamant to grow paddy crop to meet their domestic needs of food and fodder. In such situation Jalasri method can became one of the alternative for paddy cultivation. The Jalasri method is an appropriate system aimed at reducing the cost of cultivation, saving irrigation water, besides increasing grain yield significantly. Earlier Jalasri method was popular as Madagascar method of paddy cultivation.

3.1. Approaches for Promotion Entrepreneurship Programmes in Nigeria

This book used the following typology of approaches:

1. Start: Stimulating local business start-ups that enter into new local markets, there - by avoiding the trap of yet another ‘me-too’ enterprise with low revenues. Promote business start-ups as a way of creating additional jobs and incomes, and promoting competition and structural change. However, these startups often lack innovative business ideas. Instead they enter sectors with a low entry threshold, but with high competition from other companies. Stimulating local start-ups that apply IB models could encourage players to enter new markets that are not yet saturated with competitors, while at the same time serving development goals. Possible target groups for this approach include university students, NGOs or experienced business people who create a spin-off company or leave their company to engage in a totally new business. In a country or sector where IB models are still rare, the first questions that arise are why this is the case, and whether potential markets exist for the use of IB models. Questions to ask include

Facilities required for propagating many plant species by seed, cuttings, or grafting and budding include two basic units namely a structure with temperature control and ample light such as a greenhouse or hot bed where seeds can be germinated or cuttings rooted. The second unit is a structure into which the young tender plants can be moved for hardening preparatory to transplanting and cold frames or lath houses are useful for this purpose.Greenhouses: There are different types of greenhouse namely low cost greenhouse and commercial greenhouses. In all polyhouses/ greenhouses means of providing air movement and air exchange is necessary to aid in controlling temperature and humidity It is best, if possible, to have in the greenhouse heating and self-opening ventilators and evaporative cooling systems. Plastic greenhouses covered with various types of plastic film have become very popular among nursery men.

Cashew being a highly cross pollinated crop, planting of seedling is not recommended. In the past seed propagation was in vogue, which has resulted into large variation in plants due to highly heterozygous nature. However, it is seldom practiced now-a-days except to raise the rootstock materials. Selection of seed is very important for raising rootstock material. Seed nuts which are heavy and sink in water should be selected for raising seedling. Seed nuts should be collected from high yielding trees. Seed nuts collected from the current season’s crop during March, April and May are the best for seed production as they have been found to give high percentage of seed germination. Studies conducted to investigate the time taken and germination percentage revealed that heavy nuts (sunken in water) gave 92 per cent germination on 14-17 days, whereas floating nuts took 14-22 days and gave 64 per cent germination (Krishnamurthy et al., 1985).

Sexual Propagation in Pineapple

Pineapple occupy a gametophytic self-incompatibility system so that commercial cultivated pineapple rarely produces very few seeds in the field (Coppens d’Eeckenbrugge et al. 1992). However, if two varieties are grown close together and flowering time is same, it is chance for insect-aided crosspollination to set seeds. The vectors for natural cross-pollination vary with the location. Where humming birds are present, they are likely to be a primary pollinator. Where these birds are absent, honeybees and ants would be the main pollinators. The small corolla tube and the fact that pollen is not shed rule out wind as a pollinator. Since seedy fruit is not acceptable for either fresh or processing, it is rare to find more than one cultivar on large plantations. If more than one cultivaris grown in a farm, spatial separation and careful management of time of forcing will prevent seed production. However, cross-pollination between cultivars is used by pineapple breeders to generate new hybrids like “MD-2” and “CO-2” (Williams and Fleisch 1993). Sexual propagation is important for the generation of new varieties and is successfully used in pineapple breeding programs (Reinhardt et al., 2018). Pineapple Seeds are placed in shallow trays on moistened sand beds under controlled environmental conditions for germination(Junghans et al., 2015).Seed germination come up mostly from two weeks after sowing and rates are high, usually 80% or more (Chang et al., 2003). The new growing seedlings have 6 to 8 leaves stage within about three months after sowing and are then transplanted to pots with agricultural substrate and are grown under greenhouse or screen house conditions. After an additional 9 to 15 months of growth stage, during which the seedlings height reach 25 cm, which is considered adequate for planting in the field, the plants are finally acclimatized in an open nursery.

i. SHIELD OR ‘T BUDDING

Materials and equipments- Budding knife, tying material and petridis.

Procedure

Operations on the stock- Select healthy, uniform stock plants of about a lead pencil thickeness and about one to one and half years of age. Remove the thorns (if any) and side branches up to a height of 20 to 25 cm from the soil surface. Select a spot at height of about 15 to 20 cm from the soil surface in between two internodes, which is smooth, other than the southern aspect. With the help of a sharp knife make a horizontal cut of about 1.25 to 1.80 cm in length, deep enough to cut bark only. Starting from the centre of the horizontal cut make a vertical cut, deep enough to cut the bark only of about 2.5 to 3.5 cm long making the shape of english letter ’T’. Open the flaps with the help of knife blade or the back of the budding knife.

Purpose-Multiplication of plants by cutting includes stem, root and leaf cuttings. The stem cuttings are of four different types i.e. hard, semi hard, soft wood and herbaceous wood cutting consist in producing new individuals after the piece of stem has been detached from the mother plant and planted in conditions suitable for regeneration to the missing organs. Stem cutting have to develop a new root system as they already have buds to give rise to shoots. Many cells of the cutting are capable of becoming meristematic and thus are able to produce new roots. The success in the stem cutting multiplication depends upon factors such as condition of the mother plants, part of the tree from where the cuttings are made, time of the year, care while planting and after care. Cuttings can be made during monsoon (July-Sept.) and spring (Feb. -March) season when active cell division is taking place.

Purpose-The term ‘Grafting’ includes all forms of grafting and budding. It is the art of joining the part of together in such a manner that they will unite and continue their growth as one plant. A grafted plant consist of two parts a rootstock, also known as understock or stock, and a scion. The part of the graft combination which is to become the upper portion or top and performs the function of flowers production and fruits is known as scion and the part which is lower portion or root which performs the function of fixing itself in the soil, absorbs moisture and nutrient from the soil is known as rootstock.

When the scion part is a small piece of bark containing only one bud the operation is termed as budding, but when the scion part is a branch containing more than one bud, the operation is termed as grafting.

Purpose: Layering includes several forms of ground and aerial layering (goottie). When rooting is encouraged on the aerial part of a plant after wounding it is known as air layering or goottie or morcottage. When branches running parallel to ground are utilized, then the method is known as ground layering. Layering is the development of root on a stem while it is still attached to the mother plant. The root formation on the stem is stimulated by removing a ring of bark or by making a notch which cause an interruption in the downward movement of carbohydrates and auxins from the leaves and growing shoot tips. The materials accumulate near the points of treatment and helps in rooting. Root formation depends upon continuous moisture supply, good aeration and moderate temperature around the rooting zone. For the same reason the best result are obtained by these methods during monsoon month (July-Sept.) and spring (Feb. -March) from branches 1 to 2 years of age.

Veneer grafting

It has one striking advantage in using the detached scion sticks for propagation, i.e. the shoot of the mother plant which is to be multiplied can be cut away from the mother plant and taken to the seedling growing in the nursery for grafting. Proper selection of scion is very important for the success of this method. The scion stick ought to be 3 to 4 months old and with some activated bud, either auxiliary or terminal. This is secured by defoliating the scion shoot about a week before the actual operation

This method can be practiced on seedling stocks grown in pots or nursery beds. A slanting cut about 5cm long on one side of scion stock, is given and the bark along with wood is removed, giving an oblique cut. Now a slanting cut on one side of the scion is made, which will just fit with the notch of the stock. The scion is then placed in position in such a way that the cambium rings of both stock and scion come in close contact. It is then wrapped tightly with 1.5cm wide tape of 200-300 gauge alkathene film keeping the terminal ends free. When the scion begins to grow at the top, (after about 3 weeks) the upper part of the stock is removed, thus forcing the buds to grow more rapidly. The plastic wrap is removed after 2-3 months.

The success is more or less the same in the entire scion (2.5 to 10.50 cm in length) but the growth of scion is always more when bigger scions are used.

Media for plant growth and seed germination has great significance in nursery business. It is the basic need of the propagation industry. The material for rooting and growing media may be used either alone or incorporated with one or more products in combination. The materials used for rooting media may be naturally occurring or may be manufactured artificially.

Characteristics of an ideal rooting medium: These are as follows.

1. The medium must be sufficiently firm and dense to hold the cuttings or seeds in place during rooting or germination.
2. It must retain sufficient water and air, allowing sufficient drainage.
3. It should be highly decomposed and stable.
4. It must be free from weed seeds, insect pests and diseases.
5. Acidity or alkalinity should be the optimum for different species.
6. Its volume must be fairly constant, when either wet or dry.
7. It must be capable of being sterilized.

Introduction

Multiplication of plants is termed as propagation. Nowadays, propagation practice has been totally modernized. Propagation practices have advanced from field to in-vitro. Starting from scion stick of 15 to 20 cm length, the plants are multiplied even using cell, tissue and embryo. In modern horticulture trade, plant propagation is a soaring business. It is highly profitable, employment generative, recreative and creative business.

Several improvements have been noticed over the period of time in the basic techniques of plant propagation, using either conventional or tissue culture approaches. The propagation under protected environment by creating artificial conditions such as light, temperature and humidity under controlled irrigation through drip irrigation and fertigation has enhanced the potential of plant propagation and has made it possible to propagate the plants around the year.

Abstract

Propagation in vitro using shoot tips / axillary buds has been applied successfully for production of  clonal apple rootstock  Malling 7 of EMLA series. For surface sterilization, HgCl₂ was found to be a good disinfectant as compared to sodium hypochlorite. Shoot tips were established best in MS medium supplemented with 2 mg/l  BA, 0.5 mg/l GA₃ and  0.1 mg/l IBA. Antioxidants were added to overcome phenol exudation. Shoot multiplication was influenced by cytokinin type and concentration. Of the cytokinins tested, BA (0.5 mg/l) was found superior to kinetin. Addition of phloroglucinol improved multiplication rate and shoot growth. Among the auxins tested, IBA was found better and roots were readily induced with 1 mg/l IBA. 90-95 per cent plantlets were established successfully in peat containing pots as well as in the field.