eChapters

Pathology is derived from Greek word (Pathos=disease + logos=study). It is study of structure and function of body in disease.

Veterinary Pathology is the study of anatomical, chemical and physiological alterations in comparison to normal due to disease in animals. Pathology has responsibility to forms a vital bridge between preclinical sciences (Anatomy, Physiology, Biochemistry) and clinical branches of medicine and surgery.

General Pathology deals with the basic alterations of tissues as a result of disease. e.g. fatty changes, thrombosis, amyloidosis, embolism, necrosis etc.

Systemic Pathology is related to the alterations in tissues/organs of a particular system. e.g. respiratory system, genital system etc.

Special Pathology is the application of the basic reactions of gene general pathology to various specific diseases.

Gross or Macroscopic Pathology is the examination of tissue without the help of a microscope.

I. INTRODUCTION

Nations are growing with pace in technology and technological advancements. Till the end of 20th century development was the priority of entire planet earth but in the ending of the 20th century it was realized by almost all countries that development cannot go alone but it has to have the social, economic and environmental concerns. It was realized by the United Nations in Rio Conference on Environment and Development, 1992 that there is need of sustainable development. Now in 21st century the technological advancements are needed to be utilized for saving the planet earth from the curse of climate change and global warming reducing the carbon emissions across the entire planet earth. The argument in this paper is based on, how far technological advancements and technology transfer, by developed countries to developing countries can be facilitated in reduction of the carbon emission and greenhouse gases, through legally binding norms? How there should be synergy in between technologies reducing carbon emission and IPR issues?

Insect pest control includes all measures adopted to make the life of insects hard and ultimately to destroy them or to prevent their multiplication and spread. Such measures can be taken up before the appearance of the pests or after occurrence of the pests. To achieve this purpose, it is quite necessary to know the factors which favor the occurrence of the pests and acquire enough knowledge about the nature and life cycle of the pests, the vulnerable growth stage at which they can be effectively destroyed and appropriate measures of control. Control measures may be either preventive or direct.
Insect pest control is broadly classified under two different heads viz., natural control and applied control.

I. Natural control
    1.    Climatic conditions. Temperature, rainfall, sunshine etc.
    2.    Physical or topographic factors. Mountains, oceans, rivers, lakes, forests, deserts etc.
    3.    Natural enemies. Parasitoids, predators including insects, birds, mammals, reptiles etc.
    4.    Disease causing organisms or parasites. Entomophagous fungi, bacteria, viruses and other microorganisms.

Litchi (Litchi chinensis Sonn.), a member of the Sapindaceae family, originated in China. An arillate fruit, it is widely cultivated in subtropical regions of the world, providing livelihood security to millions of people in south-east Asia (GalanSauco and Menini, 1989; Menzel and Waite, 2005). Litchi is important commercial fruit crop in India. It is popularly known as “queen” of fruits due to its attractive colour, taste, flavour and excellent quality. Nutritionally, it is rich in sugar content with appreciable content of protein, minerals, fibres, vitamins and calorific value. Litchi is consumed mainly as fresh and little as processed form. The juicy aril is an excellent thirst quencher. It is highly perishable in nature. The short span of fruit availability coupled with poor shelf-life, limits duration of its availability in the domestic as well as international market. Till date, it is meagrely exploited for potential production and due R & D support is still lacking.

PRESENT STATUS

At present annual fruit production is around 585,300 metric tonnes from an area of 84,170 ha and the national productivity is 6.95 tonnes/ha. In India, main production region is concentrated in Bihar, West Bengal, Uttar Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Assam, Jharkhand, Tripura, Punjab, Haryana and Himachal Pradesh. The area under this crop has undergone substantial expansion in the past 64 years with plantation increasing from 9,400 ha in 1949 to 78,000 ha, in 2013 (NHB, 2013). Till date, the present level of production is unable to cope up with the ever-increasing demand. Its fruits are available from early-May to July in different areas.

INTRODUCTION

The term ‘ginseng’ is applied to a range of plants from family Araliaceae involving genus Panax. Out of the many species available in nature, Himalayas are also home to a commercially lesser known variety called as Panax psuedoginseng Wall (Nayar and Shastry 1990). In the interior temperate areas of the eastern Himalayas, the species is distributed across Sikkim, Bhutan, Nepal, and extends into China. Keeping in view its high commercial international demand, CSIR-Institute of Himalayan Bioresource Technology (CSIR-IHBT) Palampur has recently taken an initiative to introduce and cultivate Chinese ginseng (Panax ginseng) in the Lahaul valley of Himachal Pradesh, in India. This chapter addresses the different biological, chemical, medicinal and cultivation aspects of both the indigenous Himalayan variety (P. psuedoginseng) and the introduced Chinese species (P. ginseng) in particular.

When you are assigned with your thesis problem or some problem is puzzling you, the first step is to search the related literature ; here the term literature is used not as it is used in humanities but this means the literature related to the research work published by the earlier scientists on the topic. The searching of literature is a most important and first step in conducting research on a particular topic. This not only acquaint you with the work of other scientists who tried to solve the problem but also confirms the possibility that previous scientists might have solved that problem and yours will be a repeat attempt ; in that case you may tackle other aspects of the problem, if at all they are existing and important in present circumstances.

Extension Programme: Planning and Evaluation

The first step to promote any extension programme is to prepare useful programme based on community need. Extension Programme planning is a blueprint or plan to an extension worker for effective execution. It is a procedure of working with people in an effort to identify and recognise the unsatisfactory situations or problems and to determine the possible solutions. To understand the extension programme planning process, certain basic concepts of an extension programme, planning and extension planning need to be understood.

Programme

The word ‘programme’ has several distinct meanings in the dictionary. It means a proclamation, a prospectus, a list of events, a plan of procedure, a course of action prepared or announced beforehand, a logical sequence of operations to be performed in solving a problem. This is a written statement which describes the extension activities proposed, the problems they address, the premises on which they are based, the objectives they seek to attain, the actions and the resources they require.

Introduction and History

Leguminosae/Fabaceae is a superfamily of dicotyledonous plants, which in species diversity is the third largest family of plants accounting for 5% of Earth’s plant biodiversity and make up for more than at least 1% of the total Earth plant biomass. Among these, legume grains and pulses having more than 20 to 30% lysine protein content are cultivated in 145 million ha of land in developing countries. This family is also characterized by presence of specialized tumor like structure formation (nodules) on roots (occasionally on stem as in Sesbania rostrata, Aeschynomene) that is inhabited by microsymbiont gram-negative bacteria (Rhizobium), engaged in fixing atmospheric nitrogen or symbiotic biological nitrogen fixation.

Introduction

Picrorhiza kurroa Royle ex Benth is an important alpine medicinal plant of the Himalayan region. The root and rhizome of P. kurroa are source of the crude drug, which is characteristically bitter in taste and is linked to the medicinal properties. In Indian system of medicine, the species popularly known as Kutki, is an important constituent of several drugs items. This plant also finds a place in Chinese system of medicine where it is known as Hun-hung lien. Chemically, compounds of interest in Picrorhiza are iridoid glycosides: picroside-I and picroside-II. Material for crude drug has traditionally been extracted from the wild. Natural stands have sharply dwindled due to over extraction and habitat degradation. The species was listed as “endangered” in 1997 by International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN). Commercial cultivation is not popular, but is urgently recommended.

Organic agriculture or farming is very much native to India. Whosoever tries to write a history of organic farming will have to refer India and China. The farmers of these two countries are farmers of 40 centuries and it is organic farming that sustained them. This concept of organic farming is based on following principles:

• Nature is the best role model for farming, since it does not use any inputs nor demand unreasonable quantities of water.
• The entire system is based on intimate understanding of nature’s ways. The system does not believe in mining of the soil of its nutrients and do not degrade it in any way for today’s needs.
• The soil in this system is a living entity.
• The soil’s living population of microbes and other organisms are significant contributors to its fertility on a sustained basis and must be protected and nurtured at all cost.
• The total environment of the soil, from soil structure to soil cover is more important.

Introduction

The purpose of this e-book is to outline the main hazards in food production and processing that could influence the safety of foods and thus the health and wellbeing of consumers. The suggestive actions to restrain the formation of compounds or organisms that may threaten the safety of a food will be discussed along with the legal and regulatory framework.

“Safe Food Now for a Healthy Tomorrow”

Food is the third most basic human need, after air and water. Only when food is safe can it contribute to our food security and health. When food is not safe, people cannot thrive, hunger and poverty cannot be alleviated, and a healthy life is not possible. Food safety has a significant impact on human health, and food, which is essential for human survival, comes from plants and animals. Food safety is a core tenet of One Health.

This chapter gives an overview of the main hazards such as physical hazards, chemical hazards, biological hazards, and adulterants in different types of foods and how the hazards influence the safety of the food along with health and well-being of the consumers. The effective way of management of these hazards and different hazard limits set by the regulators such as FSSAI, USFDA, EU AND CODEX along with labelling requirements for the hazards has been discussed in this chapter.

Abstract

With its core intention to raise economic status of farmers, Govt of India vows for transformation in agriculture and sets goal to double farmers’ income by 2022. Nonetheless, net income increase at the farm is amalgamation of technologies, tactics and government policies. Farmers realized 3-4 times increment in their profit during era of green revolution when high yielding varieties and chemical fertilizers were introduced in early seventies. Subsequently income enhancement of the farmers continued through raising of farm productivity per unit area and entrepreneurship. Thus Indian agriculture experienced transformation through chemical fertilizers, high yielding varieties, synthetic pesticides, off-season cultivation, high yielding breeds, export orientation and entrepreneurship development in food processing, mushroom production, dairying and poultry. With the result, India emerged as top producer of milk, millets, pomegranate, banana, mango, jute, pulses, okra, safflower etc and second top producer of wheat, rice, tea, tomato, potato, onion etc and third in egg production and fourth in poultry meat. Consequence was evolution of commercial farming from subsistence farming. In era of globalization and increased purchase power of consumers, profitability at the farm has become subject of competitiveness, quality and consumer preference. Price shoot-up and market crashing of commodities in the country has made agriculture, a profession of risk, uncertainties and unpredictability. It has thus, lost creditability of socioeconomic security. To make it remunerative and attractive, a combo plan of transformational technologies that has the competence to break production and productivity barriers and can also address market needs as well as consumer preferences is highly wanted. There is urgent need to infuse characteristic of market orientation in agriculture through marketing information system and promoting demand driven production system with focus on zonalization of crops taking advantage of niche area or geographical indications. Commodity supply must remain high through promotion of climate resilient varieties or breeds, mechanization, adoption of hi-tech crop and livestock management practices. All this has to be made sustainable by way of produce and product diversification through integrated farming system, organic agriculture and secondary agriculture. Considering future vision, research initiatives must continue on noble areas like vertical farming and in vitro farming. Information and communication technologies will open avenue for assured marketing by linking production to consumption system via proper marketing and distribution leading to increased farm profitability. This as a whole will make transformation in agriculture a reality.

6.20. Role of Micro Nutrients in Vegetable Production 6.20.1. Born 6.20.1.1. Importance Warington first demonstrated the essentiality of boron in plants in 1923 in broad bean (Vigna fava L.). Boron markedly affects nitrogen uptake and the metabolism of nitrogen compounds. The protein contents of young leaves decrease and soluble nitrogen compounds, particularly nitrate accumulate under the condition of severe boron deficiencyBoth with and without boron added, nitrate reductase activity was obviously higher with Ca (NO3 )2 than with (NH4 )2 SO4 . With boron added, nitrate reductase activity in leaves increased from the basal to the top parts of the plant.

2.1. GERMPLASM COLLECTION
a. Propagation techniques
There are four main propagation techniques that are used in plant reproduction for most plants, viz;
• Seed
• Cuttings
• Marcotting
• Grafting
Note: That not all plants can be propagated by all the four methods mention above.

Seed processing, drying, cleaning and upgrading

Seed processing refers to all the steps necessary for preparation of harvested seed for marketing namely handling, drying, shelling, preconditioning, cleaning, size grading testing, and packaging etc.

Layout for seed processing plant

Layout plan for construction of seed processing plant should be carefully planned to ensure that thorough seed cleaning, upgrading, seed treatment and other seed processing operations are carried out efficiently without mixing and damaging seed lots with minimum equipment, personnel, time and at minimum cost.

The following factors should be considered while planning and designing the processing unit:

Abstract

Production of healthy and vigorous seedlings is the foremost crucial step for raising a successful vegetable crop. Now a days seedlings are raised in trays under controlled atmospheric conditions called as transplants. As soil substitutes, artificial media made of perlite, vermiculite and peat moss are commercially available. A good rooting medium should be light weight, well drained, well aerated, and soilless with or without starter solution or added nutrients and with good water and nutrient holding capacity. The media should be sterilized before use. Selection of trays for cell shape, size and number depends on the type and nature of crop. Most of the vegetable transplants are now being produced in hardened plastic or polystyrene containers. Only good quality certified seeds should be used in media filled trays after priming, pelleting, coating or other seed treatments as per the crop requirement. Germination chambers as insulated rooms to maintain suitable conditions over large period of time may also be used. Generally vegetable crops need fertilizer application after expansion of first true leaf. Young seedlings are managed carefully to avoid any toxicity while taking care of their nutrient management. Water requirement also depends on growth stage and variation in weather conditions. Other seedling management practices include shading, thinning, weeding, disease/pest control, hardening off and subsequent transplanting. Containerized greenhouse plants can be grown using the conventional “rail” (or rack) system or the “float” system. Shipping factors such as mechanical injury, environmental conditions and length of storage affect plant vigour and establishments. IPM (integrated pest management) offers a practical way to effectively manage pests on vegetable bedding and transplants.

Medicinal plants are non-food non-plantation crops.

These are rich in secondary metabolites viz. alkaloids, glycosides, coumarins, flavonoides and steroids, etc.

Union government of India has started a project on 'Traditional Knowledge Digital Library' under which it is documenting all Ayurvedic formulations in a digital form to avert patent threats from companies in the developed world

Financing the Business

The capital of a business consists of those funds used to start and run the business. Capital may be of two types: fixed and working.

Fixed capital refers to items bought once and used for a long period of time. This includes such things as building, fixtures and equipment. Fixed Capital does not vary with the level of output.

Working capital is the type of funds, which is needed for carrying out day-to-day operations of the business smoothly. The management of working capital is no less important than the management of ‘long term‘ financial investment. Working Capital varies with the level of output.

Dietary constitution of Indian people is mostly cereal based. However, the cereals supply chiefly carbohydrates. Therefore, there is deficiency of protein, minerals and vitamins, especially vitamin A, riboflavin, vitamin C, etc. in the diet. The dieticians advocate the intake of 125 g leafy vegetables, 75 g other vegetables and 100 g root and tuber vegetables (total 300 g) everyday because vegetables provide all the nutrient components like carbohydrates, protein, fat, minerals, vitamins and water along with roughages, which are the essential constituents of a balanced diet.

India has attained food security by increased cereal production due to green revolution. In case of vegetables, although there has been increase in production from 15 million tonnes during 1950 to 94 million tonnes in 2005 but still more vegetables are needed to meet the minimum requirement of at least 250 g per day per capita. There has also been increasing demand for fresh export and for processing industries. Moreover, there is a pressure for increasing vegetable supply caused by constantly increasing population in a world of limited acres.

Addition of new agricultural land is of course not possible. In this situation, plant breeding can be expected to contribute substantially to greater vegetable productivity. This can be accomplished not only by the breeding of basically higher yielding varieties but also by the development of varieties that help to stabilize production through resistance to various biotic and abiotic stresses.

Abstract

Though India is second largest producer of fruits and vegetables but is far behind in per capita availability of this protective food as compared to many developed countries. Floriculture and allied horticulture crop production (spices, medicinal & aromatic crops, mushroom etc.) have great potential to generate high income, jobs and new careers. Hi-tech horticulture is the need of all the developing countries and it refers to “the precise production techniques for efficient use of inputs at appropriate time and quantity for maximization of yield and quality of crops”. Various ways to make horticulture hi-tech include modern nursery management including micro propagation, protected crop production, high density planting including canopy management, use of agrochemicals, rejuvenation technique, interated nutrient management, integrated water management, integrated pest and disease management. Inspite of this, in present context, major emphasis has been given on clean horticulture production with bio-derived, renewable energy sources for developing a profitable CEA (controlled environment agriculture) that would help in sustaining the system, improving socio-economic status of growers and of-course environment-friendly.