eChapters

Bronchitis may be defined as a distressing and often serious type of inflammation affecting the windpipe, or bronchial tubes, in the chest. There are two types of bronchitis:

1. Acute Bronchitis
2. Chronic Bronchitis

Acute bronchitis: In acute bronchitis the larynx, trachea and bronchial tubes are acutely inflamed. The tissues are swollen because of irritation; large amount of mucus is secreted and poured into the bronchial tubes to protect the inflamed mucous membrane. Unless this thick, sticky material is removed, it may obstruct the windpipe, causing more severe diseases like atelactasis and pneumonia. The common cold is probably the most frequent cause of acute bronchitis.

During the acute stage of bronchitis there is usually a high fever and some difficulty in breathing. There is a constant cough. Hoarseness may also be present and some pain in the chest. Difficulty in breathing continues until the inflammation has decreased. And thick secretions have removed. Chilliness is present with internal coldness, also cold hands and feet, rawness beneath the sternum, some tightness and oppression of the chest, cough may be dry, hard, ringing, expulsive, paroxysmal, tearing which leaves great soreness under the sternum. After few days the cough, which was at first dry, becomes moist and is accompanied by slight expectoration of mucus and occasionally some blood. As the amount of expectoration increases all the other symptoms decreases, and then in turn abnormal secretion and expectoration also decreases at the end of 7 to 10 days.

Types of Brooders

Brooding is a mechanism of providing auxiliary or supplementary heat to chicks through artificial heat using brooders. Brooders are of several types depending upon the size and the nature of fuel used. These are individual, multiple units or central heating systems run by coal, wood, oil, gas or electricity. The essentialities of a good brooder are i) a dependable mechanism, ii) supply of fresh air, iii) dryness, iv) adequate space, v) easy for cleaning and disinfection, vi) protection against enemies, vii) safety from fire and viii) economy.

i) Hover brooders

Such brooders are more widely used in India wherever electricity is available. They maintain uniform temperature, convenient for operation and require very little attention. However, eclectic brooders do not heat house appreciably in very cold weather. Wet litter may be another problem requiring frequent stirring and renewal of litter.

Brooding and Rearing Practices Used for Chicken

What is Brooding?

Rearing of young ones immediately after hatching for at least 2-3 weeks, either by natural means or by artificial method is called brooding. Brooding is done by two ways i.e., Natural or Artificial ways.

Natural Brooding

In the natural method a desi fowl which acts both as incubator and brooder is used to raise only a small number of chicks. She sits on eggs (chicken) for 21 days to produce chicks from fertile eggs and broods thereafter.

Brooding is a crucial phase in poultry management that involves the care of day old chicks during the early stages of their lives. Due to their underdeveloped thermoregulatory systems, chicks cannot maintain their body temperature and thus require external warmth. Proper brooding ensures the healthy growth and development of the chicks. The brooder unit typically includes several key components and considerations.

Brooding of chicks

1. Floor brooding

• Floor brooders (canopy/hover brooder or infra-red bulb brooder) are used to keep specific area(s) within the shed at the desired temperature.

• In canopy or hover brooding method, an umbrella-like canopy with two or three incandescent bulbs (40 to 100 W) each, depending on the season) are fixed at the centre, is inverted and hung in such a way that the birds can move freely in and out of it.

• The bulbs, when put on, heat the air and the hot air is trapped by the canopy preventing the escape of hot air thereby providing warmth to the chicks.

• The height of the brooder should be around 6 inches during the first week.

Introduction

Brood Fish are the mature parent fish that are used in hatcheries for breeding purposes, they are mature enough to give sperm and egg, and their size is usually large. Generally, 2-3 years of old fishes weighing about 2-3 kg are used as brood fish. Brood fishes usually show gonadal maturity to give ovum or sperm and its management means the act of running and controlling brood f ishes. Broodstock nutrition is one of the most vital constituents for many cultured fish species. The changeable and erratic reproductive performance is an important limiting factor for the maturation, fecundity, and survival of larvae.

Broodstock management is a cornerstone of sustainable aquaculture. It involves the careful selection, conditioning, and maintenance of mature fish to ensure the consistent production of high-quality eggs and sperm. The health and reproductive success of broodstock directly influence the quality of fry and fingerlings, which are vital for successful fish farming operations. Effective broodstock management focuses on creating an optimal environment to promote gonadal development, fecundity, and survival. Key environmental factors such as water temperature, dissolved oxygen, pH, and photoperiod are closely regulated. Additionally, species-specific nutrition—particularly diets rich in protein, essential fatty acids, and vitamins—is essential for gamete development and reproductive performance. In captive environments, many fish species face reproductive dysfunction, especially in the final stages of oocyte maturation. Hormonal treatments are commonly used to induce final maturation and spawning. For instance, in salmonids, eggs must be stripped at the precise time of ovulation to prevent overripening, which can occur within hours. Thus, hormonal manipulation is crucial to ensure precise timing and improve spawning outcomes. Species selection for broodstock is based on biological characteristics such as size at maturity, reproductive behavior, feeding habits, and environmental tolerance. Farms may choose to rear their own broodstock from juvenile stages or collect them from wild populations. Those that raise their own become selfsustaining units, independent of external genetic inputs. Broodstock are typically reared in controlled ponds or tanks, with conditions tailored to their specific needs. This includes sex separation when necessary, as different sexes may require distinct environmental or hormonal cues. For example, male and female sturgeons respond to different hormone treatments. Water parameters are continually adjusted to meet species-specific requirements

Introduction The world recently celebrated the birth of its eighth billionth baby, a major milestone in the development of the human race and the doubling of our numbers in 47 years. This tremendous growth has been driven by ambitious advances in technology and health care, soaring achievements of global prosperity and a longer life expectancy that has come to a staggering 72 years. However, the glory of these achievements is marred by how we are failing the lion’s share of the global population in meeting their basic requirements. Almost one in seven people on our planet do not have enough to eat. Food and nutritional insecurity are detrimental to human development and are a major brake on overall socio-economic development which downplays any major accomplishments we have made since not having enough to eat is an international security issue. Adequate food production, easy access and the capacity to buy food, relevance concerning nutrition and stability of these elements are all necessary for sustainable food security (Helland and Sorbo, 2014).

1. TERMS RELATED WITH BROWNING

Browntop millet (Urochloaramosa) is a warm-season crop that produces seeds that are heavier than other millet varieties. This crop is cultivated in several types of soils and climates. Browntop millet is an introduced grass that originated in Southeast Asia. It is grown in Africa, western Asia, Arabia, China, and Australia. It was introduced to the United States from India in 1915. It is also useful for controlling erosion, producing hay, feeding wild animals, and producing grain for human use. In addition, it is also utilized as a crop for wild animal food. In dry and semi-arid regions, millets constitute the main food supply. Although India is the main producer of millet, output and use have fallen. Browntop millets are nutrient-dense. Browntop millet is a miracle crop for arid and rainfed areas. Nearly all of the necessary nutrients are found in browntop millets.

Clinical conditions similar to Brucellosis have been described since the time of Hippocrates (450 BC). J. A. Marston first described brucellosis as gastric remittent fever in 1861 at Malta (Marston, 1861). Sir David Bruce in 1886 first isolated little coccobacillus from an infected soldier’s spleen. However he isolated the bacteria in a pure culture in 1887 and named Micrococcus melitensis (Bruce, 1889). Later the genus was renamed as Brucella in his honour. Similarly, Bang and Stribolg first isolated Brucella abortus from abortion material of a cow (Bang, 1897). Traum in 1914 isolated the Bacillus abortus suis. Presently we know it as Brucella suis. In 1953, Brucella ovis was first isolated in New Zealand (Budlle and Boyes, 1953) from the aborted material of sheep. Carmichael and Bruner in 1968 first isolated B. canis from the aborted placenta of a dog.

            In India first report of ‘Contagious abortion’ by Brucella was found from annual report of Imperial Veterinary Research Institute (presently Indian Veterinary Research Institute), Mukteswar, Uttarakhand (Anonymous, 1918). Seroprevalence of Brucellosis is reported from various states of India afterward (Polding, 1942; Sethi et al., 1971 etc.).

Brucella species are small (0.6 x 0.6 to 1.5 pm), nonmotile, coccobacillary, Gram-negative bacteria. As they are not decolourized by 0.5% acetic acid in the modified Ziehl-Neelsen (MZN) staining technique, they are classed as MZN-positive. In MZN-stained smears of body fluids or tissues, they characteristically appear as clusters of red coccobacilli. For taxonomic purposes, all Brucella species should be classified as Brucella melitensis as DNA hybridization studies have shown that the genus contains only one species.
Brucella species are aerobic, capnophilic and catalase-positive. Apart from B.ovis and B.neotomae, they are oxidase-positive. All Brucella species are urease-positive except B.ovis. Brucella ovis and some biotypes of B.abortus require 5 to 10% CO2 for primary isolation. Moreover, the growth of other Brucella species is enhanced in an atmosphere of CO2. Media enriched with blood or serum is required for culturing B.abortus biotype 2 and B.ovis. Recently, brucellae have been detected in sea-mammals. Smears are made from specimens and stained by the modified Ziehl- Neelsen (MZN) stain. Brucellae appear as small, red-staining coccobacilli in clumps because of their intracellular growth.
Isolation
The brucellae grow well on 5-10 per cent blood agar. However, other than foetal abomasal contents and colostrum, the specimens are likely to contain many contaminating bacteria and fungi, so selective media are usually required. The selective media contain a nutritive blood agar base with 5 per cent sterile seronegative equine or bovine serum and an antibiotic supplement. The antibiotic
supplement used in selective media for B.ovis usually differs from that for B. abortus. Skirrow agar is a satisfactorymedium for both the Campylobacter fetus subspecies and for brucellae, including the most fastidious species such as B. abortus biotype 2, B.canis and B.ovis.

Synonyms : Bang’s disease, Contagious abortion, Infectious abortion, Enzootic abortion, Undulant fever, Malta fever, Mediterranean fever

Brucellosis, one of the most ancient diseases,  continues to be a problem for humans and animals throughout the world causing enormous economic losses and significant human morbidity in endemic areas. The bacterial pathogen is classified by the CDC as a category B pathogen that has the potential for development as a bioweapon. It is one of the important zoonotic disease and considered  as the most common laboratory acquired pathogen with >5 lakh human cases reported  annually  around the world. Brucellosis is a chronic infection which can result in infertility, delayed heat, interrupted lactation, loss of calves, wool, meat and milk production in animals and undulant fever in humans.

Brucellosis, one of the most ancient diseases, continues to be a problem for humans and animals throughout the world causing enormous economic losses and significant human morbidity in endemic areas. The bacterial pathogen is classified by the CDC as a category B pathogen that has the potential for development as a bioweapon. It is one of the important zoonotic disease and considered as the most common laboratory acquired pathogen with >5 lakh human cases reported annually around the world. Brucellosis is a chronic infection which can result in infertility, delayed heat, interrupted lactation, loss of calves, wool, meat and milk production in animals and undulant fever in humans. Although in most of the counties, brucellosis is a nationally notifiable disease and reportable to the local health authority, it is underreported and official numbers constitute only a fraction of true incidence of the disease. Although the true incidence of human brucellosis is unknown, the estimated burden of the disease varies widely from <0.03 to >160 per 1 lakh population. Although only 17 countries in the world are free from the disease, it has been reported in many countries including India. Bovine brucellosis is endemic in all the states in India and appears to be on the increase in recent time, perhaps due to increased trade and rapid movement of livestock. The preponderance of natural bull service in rural India is perhaps yet another important factor in the maintenance and spread of infection. The Government of India has made it mandatory to regularly screen all the breeding bulls from artificial insemination centres, for brucellosis and to use brucellosis free bulls for semen production.

Etiology: Brucella sp. are facultative intracellular Gram - ve coccobacilli, nonspore forming and non-capsulated. It infects macrophages with principal involvement of liver, spleen and bone marrow. Nine Brucella species are currently recognized, seven of them that affect terrestrial animals are: B. abortus, B. melitensis, B. suis, B. ovis, B. canis, B. neotomae and B. microti and two that affect marine mammals are B. ceti and B. pinnipedialis. The first three species are called classical Brucella and within these species seven biovars are recognized for B. abortus, three for B. melitensis and five for B. suis. The remaining species have not been differentiated into biovars.

Brussels sprouts are thought to have originated in the Belgian city of Brussels, from which they got their name. Records in the Brussels area date back to the 13th century. In the 18th century, the French coined the term. They are not native to the United States and have never been seen growing wild. Brussels sprouts are a type of cabbage (Brassica oleracea var. gemmifera) that belongs to the mustard family Brassicaceae and are commonly produced in Europe and North America for its edible buds known as sprouts. It is cultivated for its tasty buds. The leaf veggies have a diameter of 1.5-4.0 cm (0.6-1.6 in) and resemble small cabbages.

Botany & taxonomy Brussels sprouts are a type of Cole vegetable that belongs to the Brassicaceae family.

The word BRYONIA means growing rapidly, as the stem grows rapidly.

ALBA, from Latin word ALBUS means white as the roots and flowers are yellowish or white.

Bryonia affects especially the constitution of a robust, firm fiber and dark complexion, with tendency to leanness and irritability. It prefers the right side, the evening, and open air. Warm weather after cold days, to manifest its action most markedly. Bryonia acts on all serous membranes and the viscera they contain.

Bryonia gives remarkable relief in muscular pain, which aggravates on motion, in the treatment of bronchitis and inflammatory and congestive headache.

The character of the pain is "Stitching and tearing". An interesting feature of Bryonia pain is that patient feels better, ameliorated if pressure is applied to the painful part. The patient is comfortable when lying on the painful side.

1. Introduction
 
The bryophytes are found everywhere in the world except in the sea. They grow on wet soil or rock, the trunk of trees, in lake, river and even in Antarctic island. The bryophytes are placed taxonomically between algae (Fig. 1) and pteridophytes (Fig. 2); there are about 24,000 species in the world. They are further divided into three phyla, Bryophyta (mosses 14,000 species, Fig. 3), Marchantiophyta (liverworts 6,000 species, Fig.4a,b) and Anthocerotophyta (hornworts 300 species, Fig. 5). They are considered to be the oldest terrestrial plants, although no strong scientific evidence for this has appeared in the literature. This hypothesis was mainly based on the resemblance of the present-day liverworts to the first land plant fossils, the spores of which date back to almost 500 million years. Among the bryophytes almost all liverworts possess beautiful cellular oil bodies (Fig. 6) which are peculiar, membrane-bound cell organelles which consist of ethereal terpenoids and aromatic oils suspended in carbohydrates- or protein-rich matrix, while the other two phyla do not. These oil bodies are very important biological markers for the taxonomy in the Marchantiophyta (Asakawa, 1982, 1995; Asakawa et al., 1979b, 2008c, 2012b, 2013a,b; Asakawa and Ludwiczuk, 2008a,b; Ludwiczuk and Asakawa, 2010).

Cotton is a major crop of India grown in about 9.0 million hectares.This is the largest cotton area in the world. Thus, India ranks Ist among cotton growing countries in the world in terms of area. However, average cotton yields in India have been 320 kg/ha as compared to world cotton yield average of 580 kg/ha. Thus, cotton production in India represents only about 13% of the total world production whereas India accounts for approximately 20% of the world’s total cotton area. Obviously, yield levels in India are low compared to world average. The low yield levels in India are partly due to heavy losses from insect pests, particularly cotton bollworm complex.

During 2019, the global acreage of biotech/GM crops was 190.4 million ha and India planted 11.9 million ha GM cotton having insect resistance (Bt-cotton, having two commercialized events, namely, cry1Ac, MON-531, MahycoMonsanto, popularly called by trade name Bollgard-I, single gene event, commercialized in 2002 and cry2Ab2, MON-15985, Mahyco-Monsanto, popularly called by trade name Bollgard-II, double gene event or stacked trait event, commercialized in 2006) stood at the fifth place after USA, Brazil, Argentina and Canada (ISAAA, 2019). Four more events related to Bt cotton (cry1Ac, Event-1, JK Agri-Genetics, commercialized in 2006, fused genes cry1Ab and cry1Ac, GFM Event, Nath Seeds, commercialized in 2006, cry1Ac BNLA-601, UAS, Dharwad and CICR (ICAR), commercialized in 2008 but discontinued and synthetic cry1C, MLS-9124, Metahelix Life Sciences-now Tata Rallis, commercialized in 2009 but not placed in the market) were approved for commercialization but the products could never reach to the market.

Buckwheat (Fagopyrum esculentum Möench) is an annual pseudocereal crop belonging to the genus Fagopyrum of the family Polygonaceae. Its grains belong to cereals because of their similar use and chemical composition (Campbell, 1997). Among a number of buckwheat species nine species possed agricultural and nutritional trials common buckwheat (F. esculentum) and tartary buckwheat (F. tartaricum) are frequently cultivated around the world (Krkošková and Mrázová, 2005).

1.1 Introduction In parallel with the expansion of organically cultivated land and low-input agricultural system, there is an increasing demand for crops that have promising potentials to be grown successfully in these systems. Buckwheat is generally sown in smaller areas, which may be found suitable for low-input agricultural systems. Buckwheat is a fast-growing crop with a variety of utilizations. Buckwheat, one of the pseudo and minor-cereals, has the ability to satisfy the rapidly rising population’s ever-increasing food need in the nation’s hill regions in the context of changing climatic conditions. It is also known as common buckwheat or Fagopyrum esculentum, it is not a cereal grain, but rather a seed that is related to rhubarb and sorrel. It has a unique nutty flavour that makes it an excellent ingredient in a variety of dishes. It is known in India by a variety of names, including ogal, phaphar, bresha, mittahe dyat, dro, and brotitae.

Budgeting is a fundamental component of financial modelling programs and data analytics, serving as a structured approach to planning, allocating, and controlling financial resources within an organization. It involves estimating future revenues and expenses based on historical data, current trends, and strategic objectives. When combined with data analytics, budgeting becomes more dynamic, accurate, and responsive, enabling organizations to make informed financial decisions and adapt to changing conditions. The budgeting process begins with data collection and preparation. Historical financial data, including past revenues, operating costs, and capital expenditures, is gathered from various sources such as accounting systems and databases. Data analytics tools help clean, organize, and validate this information, ensuring consistency and reliability. This step is crucia

Introduction
 
Livestock sector plays an important role in Indian economy and is an important sub sector of India agriculture the contribution of livestock to gross domestic product was 4.7% in 2004-05 with 27% share in agriculture and allied sector. Milk production in India reaching a level of 91 million tones in 2004-05. It is estimated that in milk production 58% of milk was contributed by buffaloes with average lactation milk about 1300 kg. Some of the buffaloes produce as high as 4000 kg but their number is limited. India with 185 million cattle and approximately 98 million buffaloes possesses 20% of the world bovine and 14% of the cattle population. Buffalo population in the country has been increasing at a steady wait with slight increase in productivity. Highest increase in the past five years was observed in Haryana (25.1% ), followed by Uttar Pradesh (20.6%), Madhaya Pradesh (13.9%), Gujrat (13.6%), Uttaranchal (12.2%), Andhra Pradesh (10%) and Rajasthan (6.6%). Productivity per animal is very low mainly due to low genetic potential for milk production, near absence of the genetic improvement programmes, poor plan of nutrition and health measures. 

Dairy buffalo production has been a tradition in parts of the world like the Caucasian countries. Asia and Egypt, where fresh buffalo milk, dahi (cultured sour milk), ghee (butter oil) and yoghurt are popular. In Italy the dairy buffalo industry is flourishing thanks to the popularity of buffalo mozzarella cheese. Because of the market for Mozzarella, buffalo farming is a profitable enterprise and is carried out in an organized manner with modern equipment. In South American countries like Brazil and Argentina, buffalo reared for both milk and meat. In recent years buffalo milk and milk products, especially Mozzarella cheese, have become immensely popular and dairy buffalo production has founds its way into non traditional areas with the number of buffalo farms mushrooming.

The buffalo belonged to the Bovidae family, Bovinae subfamily and the scientific name is Bubalus bubalis. This is descended from the Bubalus arnee or wild Indian buffalo, and is widely dispersed throughout Southern Asia. The world population of buffaloes is approximately 204 million head: more than 98% are in Asia; 0.8%are in Africa, particularly in Egypt; 0.9% are in South America; and 0.2% are in Europe (FAO, 2024).

The countries with the largest numbers of dairy buffaloes are India, Pakistan, China, Nepal and Egypt. In Pakistan and Nepal there are more dairy buffaloes than dairy cows. Water buffaloes are the main source of milk in South Asia. India is the largest water buffalo milk producer compared to Pakistan, where buffaloes produce more milk than cattle.

 Scientific classification
 Genus: Bubalus 
 Species: bubalis
 Wild water buffalo: Bubalus arnee
 Domestic water buffalo: Bubalus bubalis
 Lowland anoa: Bubalus depressicornis
 Mountain anoa: Bubalus quarlesi
 Tamaraw: Bubalus mindorensis
 Cebu tamaraw: Bubalus cebuensis

India is home to an enormous number of buffalo. According to the 20th Livestock Census, more than 109 million buffaloes, or more than 56% of the world’s population, are living in India. With 20 recognized breeds, it also has a very diverse collection of buffalo genetics. One of the most well-known buffalo breeds in the world, the Murrah, is also found in India. The buffalo is a versatile animal that can be used for milk, meat, and draught. India is the world leader in this industry, producing 76% of the world’s buffalo milk.

Abstract

Buffalo is the second major source of milk supply in the world. India, Pakistan, China, Egypt, Nepal, Myanmar, Italy, Sri Lanka, Iran, and Turkey are the top ten countries of highest buffalo milk production. In Asian countries, Riverine buffalo is mostly used milk purpose breed. Buffalo milk is a plentiful source of nutrients including fat, protein, essential fatty acids, essential amino acids, lactose and beneficial oligosaccharides, indispensable fat and water soluble vitamins, vital minerals. It contains more total solids, fat, protein, lactose and calcium as compared to cow milk. Buffalo milk possesses wide potential to be used in the production of a range of dairy products. On account of the differences in physico-chemical and biochemical properties between buffalo and cow milk, conventional processing technology and equipment for cow milk may not be suitable for buffalo milk processing. Changes and modifications must be considered for making certain products. This chapter aims to highlight the nutritional profile including amino acid profile, lipid profile and mineral composition; physico-chemical properties and potential of buffalo milk in the dairy sector.

Buffalo farming offers a sustainable and economically viable solution to meet the growing demand for safe food production, particularly in regions with rising food insecurity. Buffaloes contribute around 45% of India’s total milk production and are more efficient in converting low-quality feed into high quality milk and meat, making them ideal for marginal farming environments. Buffalo milk, which has higher fat, protein, and mineral content than cow milk, is in demand for value-added dairy products, such as cheese, and fetches higher market prices. This enhances farmers’ incomes, especially small-scale dairy farmers, by ensuring higher returns on investment. Additionally, buffalo husbandry mitigates risks in crop failure due to climate change and provides sustainable employment opportunities. Furthermore, buffaloes produce less greenhouse gas emissions per unit of meat compared to cattle, making them more environmentally sustainable and climate smart. By advancing breeding practices and adopting scientific management, buffalo farming has the potential to drive the future of safe and sustainable food production, contributing significantly to food security and rural development.

A buffer is an aqueous solution consisting of a mixture of a weak acid and its conjugate base or a weak base and its conjugate acid. Its pH changes very little when a small amount of strong acid or base is added to it and thus it is used to prevent changes in the pH of a solution. Buffer solutions are used as a means of keeping pH at a nearly constant value in a wide variety of chemical applications. Many life forms thrive only in a relatively small pH range so they utilize a buffer solution to maintain a constant pH. One example of a buffer solution found in nature is blood.

18.1. Buffer stock

Refers to stock of food grains maintained by government to be used as a buffer to cushion shocks of fluctuating supply and price, to meet the emergency needs and to meet the situations arising out of serious unexpected shortages resulting from transport bottlenecks, natural calamities like war, flood, famine, earthquakes, and from the influx of refugees.

Introduction

This section of the manual contains instructions for preparing stock solutions that are commonly used in laboratory protocols for the analysis of DNA, RNA and proteins and visualization of gene or protein expression. Each of these stock solutions is provided as either the most convenient concentration or the most frequently used stock concentrations to be used in the protocols of an individual laboratory.

All chemicals must be reagent grade or molecular biology grade, and the water used in the preparation of all solutions must be the highest quality available. Use sterile-glass distilled deionised water whenever possible. Unless otherwise stated, most solutions required sterilization either by filtration or autoclaving.

16.1 Introduction

16.1.1 Definition of Sustainable Ecosystems

A sustainable ecosystem is a complex network of living organisms and their non-living environment that can maintain itself and its processes indefinitely. This includes the interaction of plant and animal life, water, air, soil, and other physical and chemical components. These interactions ensure a delicate balance that allows the ecosystem to thrive and provide essential resources for all living beings, including humans. 

How can we develop a sustainable water security system in an era of climate change and global warming ?  In my view, every country should develop a sustainable water security system with the following four major components.

Supply augmentation

The major sources of irrigation water are from rainfall, rivers, tanks, reservoirs and other surface water resources, groundwater, industrial and domestic effluents, and seawater.  Seawater comprises almost 97 per cent of the global water resource and is an important social asset.  With the melting of Arctic and Antarctic ice, sea level will go up with disastrous consequences. The tsunami of December 2004 gave a glimpse of what could happen in the future.  To augment supplies, we must harvest rainwater and store it carefully, both above and below ground.  Also, we should ensure that all waste water which emerges from industry and domestic use is purified and recycled.  Rainwater harvesting should become a way of life, so that it becomes everybody’s business.

Onion

Genetic Resources

In onion, much variation exists in bulb characteristics for size, shape, colour of skin and flesh, number of hearts, skin retention, firmness, pungency, TSS, yield etc. Bulbs may be white, red, brown or yellow, round, globe, flat or spindle shaped. Diversity is also found in field tolerance to Stemphyllium blight, purple blotch, basal rot and thrips. Various workers have also reported tolerance to soil salinity, reduced bolting, keeping quality and high dry matter content. In India, NBPGR, New Delhi, is a nodal agency engaged in collection, evaluation and maintenance of onion germplasms both from indigenous and exotic collections. Accessions numbering more than 1,000 onion germplasm lines are being maintained at NBPGR, New Delhi. Other centres maintaining sizeable number of germplasms are IIHR, Bangalore, Mahatma Phule Krishi Vidyapeeth, Rahuri, NHRDF also NRC on Onion and Garlic, Nasik; IARI, New Delhi, PAU, Ludhiana and IIVR, Varanasi. Indigenous collections account for more than 95% of the germplasm lines maintained in onion, which indicates the existence of large amount of variability within the country for short-day onions. However, it also indicates the necessity to enrich the existing germplasm pool by importing more exotic collections. Promising germplasms for different attributes are given in Table1.

Introduction Onion is a cool season bulb vegetable of high economic importance. According to Vavilov, Central Asia is the primary centre of origin; maximum species were found in the Mediterranean region in the West to Central Asia in the East. In India, onion was introduced around 600BC and from here it was introduced to the rest of the world. The largest onion-producing states in India include Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Karnataka, Rajasthan, Bihar, Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh, Haryana, West Bengal, and Uttar Pradesh, which together account for approximately 90% of the nation’s total onion output. The expected share of Maharashtra in 2019-2020 is about 42.53% in onion production with 11363.00 tonnes. Onion has highest export value among vegetables, the total value earned in the year 2019 was ? 2660.79 crores (NHB, 2020). Onion contains about 89% water, 4% sugar, 1% protein, 2% fat. It also contains vitamin C, vitamin B6, folic acid and many other nutrients in trace amounts. Onion bulbs and onion greens are used in various dishes all over the world in cooked, as well as raw form. Red and yellow onions are used in soups because of their sweet taste. White onions are traditionally used in classic Mexican cuisine and also for dehydration purpose. India, Mexico, U.S., Turkey, Pakistan, etc are the major exporters of onion while the major importers of onion are Malaysia, UAE, Canada, Japan, etc.

Bulb crops include onion, garlic, leek, shallot, welsh onion and chive all belonging to the genus Allium.  This genus was earlier included in the family Liliaceae due to its superior ovary.  It was later shifted to Amaryllidaceae as flowers are born in a bracted umbel on top of a scape.  Being the typical genus in the family Amaryllidaceae, a new separate family status was given to all the specious under Allium as Alliaceae.

Improved Varieties of Bulb Crops

A. ONION

Bulb crops include onion, garlic, leek, shallot, welsh onion and chive- all belonging to the genus Allium. This genus was earlier included in the family Liliaceae due to its superior ovary. It was later shifted to Amaryllidaceae as flowers are bom in a bracted umbel on top of a scape. Being the typical genus in the family Amaryllidaceae, a new separate family status was given to all the specious under Allium as Alliaceae.

The common features of bulb crops are:

1. The stem is under ground and rudimentary. The edible portion, bulb is formed by fleshy leaf bases in onion, fleshy axillary buds within thin foliage in garlic, blanched stem and leaves in leek etc.
2. All the bulb crops have a characteristic order due to presence of allyl - propyl - disulphide.
3. All are cool season vegetables and are grown during winter months in plains.

Bulb Crops

Bulb crops are cool season vegetables that are grown during the winter months in plains. They are mainly growing for its fleshy leaf bases or fleshy axillary buds or blanched stem and leaves. Major bulb crops that are widely cultivating in our country comprises of onion, garlic and leek. They possess a characteristic odour due to the presence of volatile oil, allyl propyl disulphide (onion) and diallyl disulphide (garlic). They are either seed propagated as in onion and leek or through cloves as in garlic or through bulblets in multiplier onion. Seed propagated bulb crops are annual for bulb production and biennial for seed production. Seed production of bulb crops can be undertaken in plains especially in the central part of the country and southern plains whereas, northern plains hold the problems of Stemphylium and purple blotch during the seed crop and subsequent lower seed yield makes northern plains unfit for seed production. But these areas can be utilized for seed production by following the delayed planting of seed crop and avoiding the climate favouring the diseases.

Onion (Allium cepa)

Onion is a popular vegetable grown for its pungent bulbs. Bulbs are consumed as raw vegetable, as cooked vegetable or in preserved forms. Onion is reported to be originated in Central Asia and Mediterranean region is considered as the secondary centre of origin. It is adapted to a wide range of climate and it is being cultivated in India in three seasons viz., kharif, late kharif and rabi. India is having the largest area under onion cultivation in the world. It is also contributing substantially towards the export of the value-added products from our country. White or yellow onions are commonly using for producing dehydrated products whereas, the red ones are more preferred for direct consumption.

Bulbous and rhizomatous plants refer a large group which include both flowering and foliage types. Plants having underground modified stems in the form of bulb, corm, rhizome and tuber generally come under this category. This group effectively contributes beautification of the gardens by their flowers and is very popular. BuIbous and rhizomatus plants are perennial in nature, hardy and require less maintenance. In summer when there are few flowers in the garden, these plants help to keep the gardens in a presentable form by their magnificent flowers. Large number of bulbous and rhizomatous plants are in use for this purpose. The common flowering genera include - Amaryllis, Anthurium, Canna, Cooperia, Crinum, Eucharis, Gladiolus, Haemanthus, Hedychium, Hemerocallis, Lilium, Narcissus, Ornithogalum, Pancratium, Polianthes and Zephyranthus. Some of the popular genera of foliage type are - Alocasia, Asparagus, Caladium, Calathea, Kaempferia.

Classification

According to the climatic requirement for growth and flowering, these are grouped into following two main classes.

Warm Climate - These bulbous plants produce flowers during summer-rainy season. The important ones are - Amaryllis, Crinum, Canna, Haemanthus, Hedychium, Hemerocallis, Ornithogalum, Pancratium, Polianthes, Zephyranthus etc.

9.1. Onion (Allium cepa L.)

The onion (Allium cepa), which is also known as the bulb onion, or common onion is the most widely cultivated species of the genus Allium. It has been used as food since time immemorial and is an important vegetable all over the world. The genus Allium also contains a number of other species variously referred to as onions and cultivated for food, such as the Japanese bunching onion (A. fistulosum), Egyptian onion (A. proliferum), and Canada onion (A. canadense). The vast majority of cultivars of A. cepa belong to the “common onion group” (A. cepa var. cepa) and are usually referred to simply as “onions”. The Aggregatum Group of cultivars (A. cepa var. aggregatum) includes both shallots and potato onions. Onion is suggested to have been originated in Asia, particularly Pakistan and Iran.

China is the largest onion producer in the world followed by India. Largest area under onion is in India followed by China. The major onion producing state are Maharashtra, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Gujarat, Bihar, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu and Orissa.

Cultivars/Varieites: Onion varieties differ in size, colour of skin, pungency and maturation. The most popular varieties under cultivation are Agrifound Dark Red, Agrifound Light Red, Agrifound Red, Agrifound Rose, Arka Bindu, Arka Kalyan, Arka Niketan, Arka Pragati, Baswant 780, Brown Spanish, Co-1, Co-2 Co- 3, Co-4, Early Grano, Hisar II, Kalyanpur Red Round, MDU 1 N-2-4-1, N-53, N-257-9-1, Punjab 48 (S 48), Pusa Madhavi, Punjab Red Round, Punjab Selection, Pusa Ratnar, Pusa Red, Pusa White Flat, Pusa White Round, Udaipur 101, 102 & 103.

I. General information

1. Plants propagated through modified underground stems are grouped into tubers, bulbs, rhizomes
2. An example of a bulbous plant propagated through tuber is dahlia
3. Bulbous plants which are propagated through corms are Gladiolus, Freesia, Tetonia and Tigrida
4. Bulbous plants propagated through bulbs are Amaryllis, Tuberose, Zephyranthes and Crinum
5. Bulbous plants propagated through rhizome are Alstroemeria, Bamboo, Canna, Convallaris, Hydechium, Iris and Zantedeschia
6. Bulbous plant propagated through tubercle is Bowiea volubilis
7. Bulbous plants propagated through tuberous roots are Dahlia, Eranthis, Ipomoea, Mirabilis, Ranunculus and Tapioca
8. Bulbous plants propagated through tuberous stem are Begonia and Cyclamen
9. Bulbous plant propagated through offsets are daffodil, tulip and iris

Among garden plants, herbaceous perennials that produce perennating structures like bulbs, corms, tubers, rhizomes or fascicled tuberous roots are called bulbous plants. They belong to various plant families such as Amaryllidaceae, Cannaceae, Heliconiaceae, Iridaceae, Liliaeceae, Musaceae, Ranunculaeceae and Zingiberaceae. The possession of perennating structures that are modifications of plant parts- mostly stems- is common to these plants. These modifications aid in their vegetative propagation as the dormant buds associated with them regenerate when conditions are favourable to result in new plants. In both tropical and temperate climate zones, bulbous plants have evolved and naturalized in several ecological ‘niches’. Many of these have been domesticated centuries ago and are familiar garden plants. Generally, bulbous plats are adapted to grow vegetatively putting forth shoots carrying a limited number of leaves. When further vegetative growth has ceased these shoots produce terminal or basal inflorescences. Bulbous plants are grown and displayed in clumps.

Based on the requirement of relatively low or high temperatures for sprouting and flowering they are classified into warm- season bulbous plants and cool-season bulbous plants. These groupings are not exclusive and many plants have evolved varieties that thrive in both seasonal conditions.

The wide range of climatic conditions in India provides a choice of various bulbous crops to grow them in different parts of country. The term bulbous includes a wide array of perennial plants that are grown from underground organs, including bulbs, corms, tubers and rhizomes. Any plant described as bulbous will normally have a swollen root or stem or even leaves underground. A large number of these plants producing attractive flowers are commercially grown now days. Normally bulbous plant has a three phases during a year growth, flowering and dormancy. Bulbous plants are grown commonly in beds, shrubbery, herbaceous border, grassy land and in pots and bowl. A brief description of some common bulbous crops is given below.

1. Amaryllis: Common name (CN): Belladonna lily, King or Star lily, Botanical name (BN): Amaryllis spp., Family (F): Amaryllidaceae, Origin (O): South Africa.

Amaryllis is an excellent bulbous plant with deciduous foliage. Leaves are produced after cessation of flowering. It is suitable for bedding, pot, window boxes, greenhouses, borders, etc. Flowers are sold in the market as cut flowers. The flowers are large, trumpet shaped and are borne in umbels having 3-7 florets in small flowered varieties whereas 2-4 florets of giant size in Dutch hybrids. Amaryllis is propagated by vegetative means. They are mostly propagated through bulbs. They are also commercially propagated through tissue culture. Important species are Amaryllis belladonna, A. angustifolia, A. leopolidii, A. moreliana, A. papilio, A. striata, A. miniata and A. traubii.

12.1 Introduction
This chapter presents topics on drawing, stretching and extrusion under bulk transformation process. Tensile forces are used in the manufacturing process of drawing to extend materials, viz. plastic, glass, and metal. The material takes on the required thickness and shape as it is drawn, or dragged. Sheet metal drawing, and wire, bar and tube drawing are the two categories of drawings. Drawing is one of the most remarkable shaping techniques used in sheet metal stamping. During the drawing process, a blank’s surface area is forced into a new shape by controlled metal flow due to stress. As the metal enters the cavity, flow happens. Basically, drawing occurs when the blank’s exterior profile changes during the metal’s formation. One of the complicated yet most efficient methods for forming sheet metal is drawing. Because tension is involved in the drawing process, some stretching will occur, but the goal is to form the sheet metal with as little stretching as possible. Tension and metal thinning during the stretching process cause a blank’s surface area to increase. Do not mistake stretching for drawing. The blank changes shape as the metal flows through the die during drawing. The blank edge does not move inward during stretching. Except for the fact that stretching dies, in contrast to most embossing dies, use a high-pressure binder to limit and stop metal flow. Like a drawing pad, a binder purposefully prevents the metal from flowing inward. Stretching dies are used in the production of automotive parts, viz. fenders, roofs, and hoods. Extrusion is the process of forcing material through a die with the desired cross-section to generate components with a fixed cross-sectional profile.

Bulk population breeding developed by the Swede H. Nilsson Ehle in 1908 and later on supported and practiced by H. V. Harlan in barley breeding in 1940s is a breeding strategy in crop improvement in which natural selection is allowed to play its full role where the F2 generation is planted in a plot large enough to accommodate several hundreds of plants. Planting density and cultural practices are usually the normal ones followed for commercial crop planting. At maturity, the plot is harvested in bulk and the seeds are used to plant a similar plot in the next season. This process is repeated till at least F5 where the plants are space planted to allow individual plant evaluation for effective selection. During period of bulk propagation natural selection plays a key role in shifting gene frequencies in the bulk population. This role is of crucial importance as bulk handling is continued over a number of generations. Bulk population handling can be aided by artificial selection at any time during the period of bulk propagation. Aggressive and highly competitive but undesirable plants may be physically rogued out of the population to avoid increasing the frequency of undesirable genes. For example, determinate bush types of beans do not compete well against indeterminate, vine types. And if the breeder is interested only in determinate types, artificial selection against the indeterminate types is certainly called for. There is also good reason to apply artificial selection against seed colour, pubescence, awns or other characters that are undesirable in the variety to be developed but may be more or less neutral in survival. Bulk population handling often provides opportunities to make use of artificial aids to selection. For example, bulk harvesting when only part of plants are mature is an effective and inexpensive way to select for earliness. If particular sizes of seeds are required, screens or mechanical devices provide a rapid way of eliminating inferior types. Naturally occurring or artificially induced disease or insect infestation, of course, provide opportunities to rogue susceptible individuals from the bulk plot. In F6, the plants selected in F5 are progeny rowed and superior progenies are selected from where again few plants can be selected and seed bulked within a selected row. Depending upon seed requirement for yield trial in the following years, even the seed from selected entire row can be bulked. The follow up yield evaluation trials are as given in case of pedigree selection. This method is operationally best suited for seed crops such as small grains, beans and soybean and is almost totally unsuited for fruit crops and for most vegetable crops.

Bulk population method of breeding is defined as the growing of genetically diverse populations of self-pollinated crops in a bulk plot with or without mass selection, followed by single plant selection. It is applicable to self-pollinated crops and not applied to cross-pollinated crops. Bulk population breeding is a strategy of crop improvement in which natural selection effect is solicited more directly in the early generations of the procedure by delaying stringent artificial selection until later generations. The Swede, H. Nilsson-Ehle, developed the procedure. H.V Harlan and colleagues provided additional theoretical foundation for this method through their work in barley breeding in 1940s. As proposed by Harlan and colleagues, the bulk method entails yield testing of the F2 bulk progenies from crosses and discarding whole crosses based on yield performance. In other words, the primary objective is to stratify crosses for selection of parents based on yield values. The current application of the bulk method has a different objective.

Bulldozers are among the most crucial and versatile machines used in construction, mining, and various earth-moving applications. Known for their immense power and capability to perform heavy-duty tasks, bulldozers have become a cornerstone of modern construction projects. Their design features a large blade at the front, allows them to efficiently push large quantities of soil, sand, rubble, or other materials, making them indispensable in clearing land, grading surfaces, and moving materials across construction sites. Advancements in technology and engineering have significantly improved bulldozer performance over the years adding more precision, power, and efficiency to these machines. The use of bulldozers spans various industries, from construction and road building to agriculture and forestry, where they play a key role in shaping landscapes, preparing sites, and assisting in major earth-moving operations. With the ability to work in diverse terrains and under challenging conditions, bulldozers have proven to be resilient, durable, and highly adaptable, meeting the needs of both small and large-scale projects. This chapter provides a breif overview into the history, design, types, functions, and applications of bulldozers, offering a comprehensive understanding of their significance in the construction and earth-moving industry. Through this exploration, we will also look at the innovations that continue to shape the evolution of this powerful machine.
TYPES OF COMMON BULLDOZERS
There are several different types of bulldozers available in the market. The most common among them are listed below:
• Crawlers: This bulldozer variant resembles a tractor and moves across the ground using tracks, providing better traction and preventing it from sinking into softer surfaces like loose dirt or sand. Often equipped with a ripper at the rear, crawlers are capable of breaking up tougher surfaces. Larger crawlers

Pododermatitis or bumble foot has many causes including excess weight bearing from obesity or unequal weight bearing between the two feet as a result of lameness of one foot, causing less weight to be placed on that foot and more on the contralateral foot, or from abnormal abrasions of the plantar surface from inappropriate substrate (too sharp or rough, wire, etc.), decreased blood supply to the foot (sometimes from lack of exercise), trauma, or standing for prolonged periods of time, especially in ducks that are not provided with adequate swimming opportunities.

Bumble foot is commonly seen in waterfowl under one or more of the following conditions; obesity, hard substrate, lack of access to water to swim in, malnutrition and underlying disease.

This is localized infection of the feet. It is seen as bulbous swelling of the footpad and surrounding tissues. It appears usually after an injury to the foot pad and causes lameness in one or both feet. Pododermatitis is divided into varying grades depending on the literature source used, but generally includes mild, moderate, and severe grades with the severe grades including osteomyelitis. Infection by various bacteria commonly occurs and superficial wounds may not be present. Sometimes ulcers are formed on the planter surface of the foot. The layers become lame and production lowers, sometimes completely stops. On opening the swelling a foul smelling thick pus is found. The condition is more common in heavy breeds. Early surgery and antibiotic therapy may control the condition. Removal of high roosts reduces the incidence.

ABSTRACT

Bunium persicum (Boiss.) Fedtsch., (Family: Apiaceae) is an important plant of temperate regions and its seeds are used as carminative substance in various food recipes. The seeds of the species act as a good source of economy to the hilly and mountain people. As the species is restricted in its habitat, therefore, it requires mass cultivation practices. Many attempts are already made to cultivate species near to its natural habitat. In recent years some efforts have been done to domesticate this plant in certain areas of India like Shong area in Kinnaur district of Himachal Pradesh, India, but the cultivation remained very limited. Therefore, in addition to its collection from the wild sources the species needs more scientific intervention in agriculture sector. This species has typical Palaeo-Mediterranean distribution. In India the species is distributed in wild only in North West Himalaya (J&K, HP and UK) which makes its ocurrence rarity in the country. The species restricted its distribution between 1850-3100 meters above mean sea level. Phylogenetically the species is near to Carum carvi L., therefore, C. carvi is the potential adulterant of B. persicum.