eChapters

Introduction
The Protection of Civil Rights Act, 1955 (PCRA) is a crucial piece of legislation in India, designed to address social discrimination and uphold the equality enshrined in the Constitution. Originally known as the Untouchability (Offences) Act, 1955, it was later amended to become the Protection of Civil Rights Act. This law aims to eliminate the social stigma associated with untouchability and caste-based discrimination, providing a framework to ensure that all individuals enjoy civil rights, regardless of caste, creed, or background.
Historical Background
India’s caste system has deep historical roots, often leading to various forms of social exclusion and discrimination, especially for those belonging to the lower castes or “Dalit” communities. Recognizing the need for legal safeguards, India’s Constituent Assembly introduced Article 17 in the Constitution, abolishing untouchability. However, legal provisions were needed to enforce these rights effectively, leading to the enactment of the Untouchability (Offences) Act in 1955. With amendments and broader interpretation, it evolved into the Protection of Civil Rights Act, 1955.
Objectives of the Protection of Civil Rights Act
The PCRA aims to
1. Abolish untouchability in all forms.
2. Protect and promote civil rights, ensuring equal access to public places and services.
3. Prohibit discrimination in any social, economic, or educational sphere based on caste or religion.
4. Penalize those who commit acts of discrimination or deprive others of their rights based on caste or other prejudicial factors.

Introduction

A generator is subjected to electrical stresses imposed on the insulation of the machine, mechanical forces acting on the various parts of the machine, and temperature rise. These are the main factors which make protection necessary for the generator or alternator. Even when properly used, a machine in its perfect running condition does not only maintain its specified rated performance for many years, but it does also repeatedly withstand certain excess of overload.

Preventive measures must be taken against overloads and abnormal conditions of the machine so that it can serve safely. Even ensuring an efficient design, construction, operation, and preventive means of protection – the risk of a fault cannot be completely eliminated from any machine. The devices used in generator protection, ensure that when a fault arises, it is eliminated as quickly as possible.

Abstract

GIS has several products that can be protected in India as copyright. The paper describes major provisions of copyright Act, 1957 that has been amended five times. GIS products qualify to be registered within various sections of the copyright Act. Patenting of software is permitted in some countries but not in India, a comparative account of these two forms of protection has been discussed with practical examples. General public licensing of open source software, translation, exclusive licensing and data sharing & accessibility policy are other areas covered in the present study and analytical learning.

Key words : copyright, patent, GIS, software, data sharing

1.0 Introduction

The copyright Act 1957 was mainly amended in 1994 and1999 to bring into complete harmony with Trade Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPs), further major amendment has been done in 2012, that include wide range changes in ownership, term of protection, copyright security, cinematography and broadcasting provisions. In the same year government of India has initiated ‘National Data Sharing and Accessibility Policy (NDSAP)’ which came into operation from February 2012. At present the copyright Act and data sharing policy are the two legal and administrative instruments which facilitate the intellectual property protection and appropriate sharing among stakeholders in the country.

1. PPV & FR ACT

With the signing of TRIPs agreement of the World Trade Organization (WTO), India has agreed to provide protection to plant varieties. The Government of India, therefore, enacted “ The Protection of Plant Varieties and Farmers Rights Act (PPV&FR Act)” in 2001 and the Regulations for implementing the Act were formulated in 2003.

The Ministry of Agriculture, Government of India, has been identified as the nodal agency for implementing the PPV& FR Act through an Authority known as “The Protection of Plant Varieties and Farmer Rights Authority”. The Authority came into force in November, 2005.

PPV & FR act has 11 chapters, 4 schedules and 97 sections.

14.1. PPVFR Act

TRIPS (Trade Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights) agreement of WTO (World Trade Organization) was signed.

Enacted PPVFR act in 2001.

Regulation formulated in 2003.

Protection of Plant Varieties and Farmers’ Rights Act-2001 (PPVFRA-2001) was enacted by government of India in 2001 to create a sui generis system of providing a legal framework as an IPR mechanism to protect the varieties of crop plants in India along with grant of breeders’ and farmers’ rights in the interest of all the stakeholders and also to comply with WTO guidelines to which India is a legal signatory. The salient features of this act are as follows.

The Protection of Plant Varieties and Farmers’ Rights Act-2001, Act no. 53 of 2001, (30th october, 2001)

This act is in place to provide for the establishment of an effective system for protection of plant varieties, the rights of farmers and plant breeders and to encourage the development of new varieties of plants. It recognizes and protects the rights of the farmers in respect of their contribution made at any time in conserving; improving and making available plant genetic resources for the development of new plant varieties; it encourages accelerated agricultural development in the country; it protects plant breeders’ rights to stimulate investment for research and development, both in the public and private sector, for the development of new plant varieties; it facilitates the growth of the seed industry in the country which will ensure the availability of high quality seeds and planting material to the farmers. To give effect to the aforesaid objectives, it is necessary to undertake measures for the protection of the rights of farmers and plant breeders; as India, has ratified the Agreement on Trade Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights should, inter alia, make provision for giving effect to sub-paragraph (b) of paragraph 3 of article 27 in Part II of the said Agreement relating to protection of plant varieties. Accordingly, this act is in place.

Protection of Plant Varieties and Farmers’ Rights Act-2001 (PPVFRA-2001) was enacted by government of India in 2001 to create a sui generis system of providing a legal framework as an IPR mechanism to protect the varieties of crop plants in India along with grant of breeders’ and farmers’ rights in the interest of all the stakeholders and also to comply with WTO guidelines to which India is a legal signatory.

Chapter I
Preliminary 
1. Short Title and Commencement 
    (1)    These rules may be called the Protection of Plant Varieties and Farmers’ Rights Rules, 2003.   
    (2)    They shall come into force on the date on which the Act shall come into force.   

2. Definitions 
        In these rules, unless the context otherwise requires, -   
    (a)    “Act” means the Protection of Plant Varieties and Farmers’ Rights Act, 2001(53 of 2001);

The plant variety is related to intellectual property that needs to be protected for controlled commercial unitization for a specified period. New plant varieties development requires scientific skill, knowledge, significant investment of land and specialized equipments. These varieties are cultivated by farmers in their adaptive region. In development of new variety 10 to 15 years are required. If developed variety successfully commercialized on farmer’s field, then the market business is much higher than input investment. The major issue in developed variety that can be easily reproduced by someone without permission of original breeder. Thus, the original breeder deprived for their f inancial benefit. It is, therefore, critical to provide an effective system of plant variety protection, which encourages the development of new varieties of plants thereby benefiting the breeder and society at large. The sustainable and long-term breeding effort for development of new varieties needs encouragement and financial reward for investing time and skills. To secure legal protection of the developed variety breeder needs to obtained exclusive right from government.After establishment of WTO in 1995 under TRIP the right to protect plant varieties become mandatory for signatory country. It has also realised that existence of the private seed industry, the protection of plant varieties become necessity.

In order to provide for the establishment of an effective system for protection of plant varieties, the rights of farmers and plant breeders and to encourage the development of new varieties of plants it has been considered necessary to recognize and protect the rights of the farmers in respect of their contribution made at any time in conserving, improving and making available plant genetic resources for the development of the new plant varieties. Moreover to accelerate agricultural development, it is necessary to protect plants breeders’ rights to stimulate investment for research and development for the development of new plant varieties.

India is known for its rich wildlife heritage. In fact, the country is considered one of the best among available mega-biodiversity areas in the world. The landscape and agro-climatic conditions of India make it a unique habitat for wild animals. The government of India has made attempts to conserve wildlife through different projects like Corbett tiger, Elephant projects etc. The wild life management in India is at present ‘preservation-oriented’. This is bound to remain so for a long time because of the significantly depleted status of our wild life population. Indian government in pursuit of conserving the heritage of wilderness has made committed efforts with several wildlife and Forest Acts to ensure protection by declaring the areas as protected under the spectrum of national park and wildlife sanctuaries. The eco-tourism and conservation awareness has created environmental consciousness among the people.

Duff and  Daly (2002) briefly describes the commonly found orchid diseases. These include the Bacterial soft rot caused by Erwinia carotovora, black leg or slow decline caused by Fusarium spp., petal blight caused by Curvularia eragrostidis [PseudocochlioBolus eragrostidis] and Alternaria alternata, top rot/shoot rot caused by Phytophthora parasitica, and stem rot caused by Sclerotium rolfsii [Athelia rolfsii].

ABSTRACT

The present study was designed to evaluate the effect of α-mangostin on cardiac markers against isoproterenol-induced myocardial infarction in rats. Induction of rats with Isoproterenol (150 mg/kg body wt, i.p) for 2 days resulted in a marked reduction in the activities of cardiac tissue marker enzymes (LDH, CPK, GOT and GPT). Pretreatment with α-mangostin (200 mg/kg of body wt/day) orally for 6 days significantly prevented these alterations and restored the enzyme activities to near normal levels. In conclusion, these findings demonstrate the protective effect of α-mangostin on isoproterenol induced experimental myocardial infarction in rats.

1. The protein is derived from Greek word “Proteins” which means
   1. Principal
   2. Prime
   3. Holding the first place
   4. All of the above
2. The name protein to the group of organic compounds that are utmost important to life is suggested by
   1. Mulder
   2. Berzelius
   3. Kulim
   4. Sanger

1. Protein Estimation

The method developed by Lowry et al. (1951) is largely followed for the estimation of soluble protein. This method is quite sensitive and gives a moderately constant value.

Protein may also be estimated by analyzing the total nitrogen content. Multiplying total nitrogen value with 6.25 will give the crude protein content. However, the nitrogen per cent varies with amino acid composition of proteins. For more refined expression of protein percentage, different factors are used for different samples. Some of the conversion factors for cereal and oilseed are given below:

Objective: To separate protein fragments by using SDS-PAGE method.

Background information

Electrophoresis is the motion of dispersed particles relative to a fluid under the effect of limited uniform field of electricity (Dukhin, and Derjaguin, 1974). Ferdin and Frederic Reuss (Reuss, 1809) first time observed such phenomena of electrokinetic nature in 1807. They found that the clay particles move in the water by giving constant supply of current. It happened due to interface of charged particles surface and the surrounding media. The technique is used widely in chemistry, biochemistry and molecular biology to separate different molecules based on difference in charge, binding affinity and size. Electrophoresis may be of two types viz., Anaphoresis and Cataphoresis. Anaphoresis is the electrophoresis of anions (-ve charged ions) while, Cataphoresis is electrophoresis of cations (+ve charged ions). Electrophoresis is a major analytical technique in biochemistry that is used for separation of macromolecules like protein, enzymes and nucleic acids. Electrophoresis is a technique used in laboratories in order to separate macromolecules based on size.

PAGE is abbreviated for Polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis that describes a technique widely used in biochemistry, forensics, genetics, molecular biology and biotechnology to separate biological macromolecules, usually proteins or nucleic acids, according to their electrophoretic mobility. Mobility is a function of the length, conformation and charge of the molecule.

• All green leafy materials in nature have Mg, because it is the structural component of chlorophyll. Wherever such green colour is there, carotenes would be associated. The colour of carotenes is red, but this
red colour is masked by green colour of chlorophyll. Wherever above green colour is there, vitamin K would also be invariably associated. Therefore Mg, vitamin A and vitamin K would be available by – default or what!! {α, β, ϒ, δ – carotene (s)}. Hence, grazing animals generally would be receiving these nutrients. [we humans may also eat fresh green leafy vegetables {spinach (palak), bathua, methi, coriander (dhania), cabbage, knol – khol, capsicum (bell pepper, Shimla mirch) to get above nutrients]
• Vitamins help regulate body functions, keeping the body healthy and promoting resistance to dis – eases.
• Supplementation of micro – nutrients (vitamins and minerals) as pre – mix, have + ve effects on maintenance, growth, and milk production.
• Biotin, niacin, choline improves milk production in dairy cattle.
• Multivitamin tablet = A to Z0NS may be given (preferably natural sources would always be suggested).
• Vitamin ‘B’ complex, vitamins C, K are very much synthesized by rumen microbes.
Importance of vitamins and their requirements in animal health and production:
Tables 2 & 3

Crude protein of feeds contain true protein and non – protein nitrogen. True protein is made up of amino acids and for maximum efficiency, feed must have essential acids in correct proportion, correct balance as well as non – essential amino acids should also be in sufficient amounts. About digestion in simple stomached animals, the true protein is degraded to oligopeptides (less than 10 peptides) in the stomach, subsequently to mono peptide amino acids in the small intestine. Thereafter amino acids are assimilated in the small intestine.
But in ruminants, the situation is complex in the sense that feed proteins get digested in the rumen, but even amino acids are also broken down by the microbes, and thereafter, amino and carboxylic groups are released. Secondly, synthesis of new amino acids or proteins takes place for formation of their own microbial body coat. Because of these reasons, the approach for protein evaluation or expression is different in ruminant animal. Further, non-protein portion of the feed cannot be utilized effectively by non – ruminants like swine and poultry. These animals are usually fed with oil cakes, cereals and
cereal by products, which are poor in non-protein compounds, however, young succulent fodders, clover etcetera are rich in such compounds. In the laboratory, crude protein may be estimated by kjeldahl’s method and true protein may be precipitated from non – protein nitrogen fraction by treating with cupric hydroxide or trichloro acetic acid. The precipitate is filtered off and subjected to kjeldahl’s process. For experimental evaluation of non – ruminants: albino or wistar rats, rabbits, guinea pigs or poultry birds are taken. Casein (milk protein) or albumen (egg protein) are fed to these animals for a period of 4
weeks and any of the following methods are undertaken to look for the protein quality based on response of animals.

A. Answer the following Question

1.    Why availabilityof bacterial protein is low?

Ans: Because, bacterial protein is protected by cell wall (mucopeptide polymer) which are resistant to enzymatic action.

2.    What is isoelectric pH?

Ans: The pH at which an amino acid exists in solution as a zwitter ion is called isoelectric pH that is the pH at which the amino acid is electrically neutral and has no tendency to migrate towards either electrode.

3.    What is ketogenic amino acid?

Ans: Ketogenic amino acid refers to those amino acids which give rise to acetyl CoA and consequently the potential fatty acids producers. e.g. leucine

4.    Why chicks require higher level of arginine?

Ans: Since they do not have urea cycle and feathers are very high inarginine.

5.    Why chicks require high level of glycine?

Amino acids serve as the building blocks of proteins and as precursors of many other important biomolecules such as hormones, purines, pyrimidines, porphyrins and some vitamins. They also serve as sources of energy when present in excess amounts and when they are used as fuel, amino acids undergo deamination reactions. The remaining carbon skeleton will either convert itself into glucose or undergoes oxidation to CO₂ via TCA cycle.

Central dogma: The Central dogma of molecular biology, which has been formulated as a simple linear progression of information from DNA to RNA to Protein, is summarized in the illustration. The replication process on the left consists of   passing  information from a parent DNA molecule to daughter molecules. The middle  transcription process copies this information to a mRNA molecule.  Finally, this information is used by the chemical machinery of the ribosome to make polypeptides.