eChapters

Subclavian artery

The fore limb is chiefly supplied by the subclavian artery (Fig. 5-4 A). It originates from the brachiocephalic trunk within the thoracic cavity. The left subclavian detaches from the brachiocephalic trunk opposite the second rib, passes craniodorsally towards the thoracic inlet winds around the cranial border of the first rib and then courses caudoventrally through the axillary space between the subscapular and teres major muscles as the axillary artery. It gives off the subscapular branch and continues as the brachial artery. The right subclavian is the direct continuation of the brachiocephalic trunk after the later gives off the bicarotid trunk opposite the first rib. It gets exit through the thoracic inlet, winds around the cranial border of the first rib and then continues as the right axillary artery and thereafter as the brachial artery similar to the artery of the left side.

Theory of Costs

In both short-run and long-run analyses, there exist different cost curves.

Short run is the duration of a given factor or factors. Equipment and business owners are typically fxed in the near term

Long run is the period over which all factors become variable.

Fixed costs: are those expenses that remain constant regardless of output or production levels.. Eg: depreciation, annual maintenance cost etc.

Variable cost: are those expenses that change depending on the volume of output eg : inputs/raw material costs, wages etc.

Short Run Cost Curves

There are seven cost concepts or curves in short run analysis. They are :

1. Total cost (TC)
2. Total Fixed cost (TFC)

• The skin of grape berry is covered with a wax-like layer which is called cutin
• Fe deficiency is very common in black soil
• Thompsom seedless variety with its done occupies 55 % area under grape cultivation
• Rains during ripening cause berry cracking and rotting
• Pruning
  • North India- December-January
  • South India- April and October
    • April- Back of foundation pruning
    • October- Fruit or forwarded pruning
• Mg deficiency is universal in grape cultivation
• CCC- for suppressing vigour of wine and increasing fruit fullness of bud
• GA3- For increasing berry size

• General considerations

 • Examination of skin scrapings for mange

 • Examination of skin scrapings for fungi

 • Cultural examination

General Considerations

The skin scrapings are examined for the diagnosis of skin diseases, including parasitic, fungal and bacterial infections and infestations.

Primary Dicot Root

A young dicot root which does not possess secondary tissues but only the primary permanent tissues (tissues derived from the apical growing point) is called primary dicot root. It is generally cylindrical in outline and possesses the following tissues.

I) Epiblema or Piliferous Layer

It is the outermost layer of the root. It is made of compactly arranged thin walled and slightly elongated parenchymatous cells. Epiblema of a root differs from the epidermis of the stem in being devoid of distinct cuticle and stomata. Some cells of the epiblema give rise to thin – walled tubular outgrowths called root hairs. In some plants the root hair mother cells are shorter in comparison to other epiblema cells. The root hairs and piliferous layer (pilus – hair, ferre to carry). The root hair and thin walled epiblema cells absorb water and mineral salts from the soil. Root hairs commonly do not live for more than one week. With their death the epiblema cells become suberised and cutinised.

II) Cortex

It lies below the epiblema. The cortex is made up of many layers of thin walled parenchyma cells. The parenchyma cells may be rounded or angular. They enclose inter-cellular spaces for diffusion of gases.The cells of the cortex store food. They also conduct water from the epiblema to the inner tissues.

1. Degree of excellence referred as quality

2. More acidic pH leads to chalkiness in seer fish

3. Low post mortem pH leads to gapping

4. In squid and herring anisakis parasite normally found

5. The most crustacean parasites are copepods

6. Greasy haddock is a fungal disease caused by icthyosporidium hoferi

7. Tetra toxin is caused by V.alginolyticus

8. NSP produced by brevetoxin

9. VSP- venerupin shellfish poisoning also called as oyster or asaripoisoning it is caused by Prorocentrum sp.

10. Erythematius shellfish poisoning affect the blood circulatory system

11. The maximum permitted limit of DDT is 5 mg/ kg

Integrated Disease Management (IDM) is an approach to controlling plant diseases that combines multiple management strategies to minimize the risk of disease development and spread. IDM integrates biological, chemical, cultural, and physical control methods in a coordinated and complementary way. The primary goal of IDM is to keep disease levels below economically damaging thresholds while reducing reliance on chemical inputs, preserving environmental quality, and promoting sustainability in agricultural systems.
Concept of Integrated Disease Management (IDM)
IDM is designed to harmonize various disease control measures in a way that limits disease progression without relying heavily on any single method. Its goal is to maintain disease levels below an economic threshold where the
cost of intervention is justified by the gains in crop yield and quality. IDM emphasizes preventing disease outbreaks through the judicious use of all available management tools, ensuring that environmental and human health risks are minimized.

Medication refers to administration of drugs. The route, dose and frequency of the drugs administration is most important in providing health care and welfare of the animals. Wide range of body size and their weight in animals and rearing practice makes the treatment and drug administration strategies a bit complex. Because of this complexity wide range of drug formulary and drug delivery strategies has been developed in animals for health care. Route of drug administration varies from oral administration, parenteral administration to local application on skin and mucus membrane. Similarly forms of the drugs varies from liquids, semisolids to solids for oral administration; from clear solution, suspension, emulsion to powder for parenteral administration; and from powder, cream, paste, suspension, ointment, solutions to emulsifiable concentrates for local application. Oral Administration of Drugs All three forms of drugs viz. liquids (solution, emulsion, suspension), semisolids (paste), and solids

Existing positive as well as negative interactions among the members of the society determine the communication structure, leadership and technology diffusion pattern within the given social system. Sociometry is a method for gathering and analyzing data on communication choice and interaction pattern of individuals, within a group in order to identify communication structure and pattern.

Genus : Juglans 
Species : regia L.
Family : Juglandaceae
Chromosome No. : 2n=2x=32

Walnut (Juglans regia L.) among the nut crops is regarded to be a rich source of proteins, fats and minerals and is said to be a concentrated source of energy. It is on this account that wild walnuts have been utilized as food for human and animals since pre-historic times. It contains good amount of different vitamins of B group and is richest in vitamin B6 compared to almond, pecan, filbert, chestnut and Brazil nut. After the last ice age, records indicate that walnut spread from Asia Minor to other parts of the world, while some opinion it to be even older than man as revealed by fossil studies.

Efficiency of pest control by insecticides is dependent on the correct type of pesticide formulation applied at the proper time and correct dosage, besides the good equipment. Equipment used to apply insecticides must be suited to the crop (or other situation in which the pest is to be controlled), to the scale of operation, and to the formulation of chemical to be applied. In the long run, it is good economy to buy the best equipment available.

Application equipment of high quality means not only good, durable construction but also good design that gives it a professional appearance. Because it is desirable and often necessary to utilize pesticides in a variety of ways, various types of dispensing equipment have been developed. This equipment is placed in the following categories: (1) Sprayers, (2) Dusters, and (3) Granule Applicators. In addition, specialised equipment of various sorts (such as mist machines and fog generators) are available for particular purposes. Since detailed consideration of pesticide application equipment is out of the scope of this book, only a brief consideration is given here to some important features of the main types of equipment.

Human being as a hunter has depended mostly on animal food and some fruits. With the progress of civilization, he settled down and

started agriculture around 7000-10,000 B.C. He started depending on plant grains to take care of his energy and nutritional requirements in addition to animal foods. Initially cereal grains must have mostly accounted for his staple food requirements. Taste and health requirements must have prompted him to diversify his crop production programme. It is this need that must have made him to cultivate oilseeds, fibre and other crops.

Oilseeds, thus, have been under cultivation since antiquity. Rapeseed and sesame have been described in the Indian Sanskrit writings of 2000 BC. Historically, extraction of oil seems to have been a batch process. Seeds kept in gunny bags or boxes were pressed to remove oil. The separated oil on clarification was used for food and non food purposes. The resulting cakes were utilized as animal feed or thrown away into fields which helped in improving the soil fertility. Human beings slowly discovered the uses of oil and other oilseed products for various food and non-food purposes.

There are several species of plants in the world whose oil can be utilized for human consumption. Though around 40 oilseeds are known, only around a dozen oilseed crops have become commercially important. There are ten seed crops and three tree crops. The seed crops are groundnut, rapeseed- mustard, sesame, soybean, sunflower, cottonseed, safflower, niger, castor and linseed. These are mostly annual crops. The three major tree oil crops are palm, olive and coconut.

Vegetables occupy an important place in diversification of agriculture and have played a pivotal role in the food and nutritional security of every growing population of our country. Vegetables are becoming important as cash crops for urban and export markets. Looking at the national scenario, vegetables have tremendous strength in terms of natural and genetic resources. A large number of wild taxa and indigenous germplasm are available in the country and many of them have not being fully capitalized. Though efforts have been made to tap the variability present among the vegetable crops in the country and many varieties have been released, it needs further attention so that the problems of biotic and abiotic stresses can also be minimized. The vast diversity of land, soil and agro climatic conditions prevalent in India also offers a unique competitiveness to grow wide range of vegetables. During the last four decades, India has made commendable progress in vegetable production (from 23.45 million tonnes in 1961-65 to 166.47 million tonnes in 2015-16), securing the position of second largest production of vegetables in world next only to China. The total world vegetable production is 1159.88 million tonnes from an area of 59.16 million hectares. In this, India contributes about 15.88 % with the production equal to 166.47 million tonnes from an area of 9.29 million hectares (NHB, 2015-16).

1. SEED MOISTURE

Seed moisture is one of the most important deciding factors of seed viability and quality during storage. Hence, determination of seed moisture content and drying to the safe moisture content is utmost important before transit and storage.

According to ISTA (1985), moisture content of the sample is defined as that loss of weight when it is dried in accordance with the rules or the amount of water collected when it is distilled. It is expressed as percentage of the original weight of sample (wet basis).

1.1. Principle

Moisture present in the seed is removed completely as much as possible without oxidation or decomposition or loss in other volatile substances by applying heat. The weight loss due to drying is estimated and the moisture content is calculated.

Rescue of any wild animal during the occurrence of natural disaster regardless of the habitat / topography is totally difference when compared with any domestic animal species. The person engaging in the rescue activities of wild fauna in regions exposed to natural disasters or calamities need to understand about the general classification of wild fauna as a first step.

Introduction

Cotton is a fiber crop of Malvaceous family. There are four cultivated species of cotton viz. Gossypium arboreum, G. herbaceum, G. hirsutum and G. barbadense out of which G. hirsutum is the predominant species contributing about 90% to the global production. In India all the above four cultivated species are grown on commercial scale as a kharif crop. India is the largest producer as well as consumer of cotton in the world. The major cotton growing states of India are Maharashtra, Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat and parts of Andhra Pradesh & Karnataka. In Odisha cotton cultivation is an up-coming activity. Many of the western belt farmers, mainly from Rayagada, Bolangir, Kalahandi, Nabarangpur, and Nuapara districts have been taking cultivation of this cash crop. According to the report of Odisha economic survey, 2018-19 a total of 1.45 lakh ha area was cultivated in 2017-18 producing 3.65lakh bales of cotton. In Rayagada district cotton is cultivated in 9 blocks out of 11 blocks comprising an area of 35170 ha. For the year 2018-19 yield was 12.37 q/ha with production of 25.6 MT of cotton according to the data given by District agriculture office, Rayagada.

Key Points

• Drowning is a common cause of accidental death in animals.

• Submersion in water or other fluids prevents atmospheric air from reaching the lungs.

• To diagnose drowning, trustworthy witnesses and a history of drowning at the accident location are required.

Introduction

Drowning or immersion is a type of asphyxial death caused by a body being submerged in water or another fluid medium and preventing atmospheric air from reaching the lungs. Drowning isn't always fatal. When a drowning causes death, it is known as a fatal drowning. Complete submersion is not required for lethal drowning; simply submerging the nose and mouth is sufficient. Drowning is a difficult process. It comprises liquid aspiration, struggle, involuntary movements, dyspnea, and cardiovascular responses. Drowning ultimately leads to hypoxia and death.

Location and Layout
• As the laboratory will be handling materials hazardous to human and animal health, it must be isolated as much as possible from livestock yards, poultry farms and quarantine stations and should not function in or near establishments handling healthy animals, food products for human or animal consumption or near vaccine production laboratories.
• Animal houses, garages, workshops, stores, water tanks, residential accommodation, administrative blocks have to be constructed as per the need of ideal microbiological laboratory. Expansion possibilities should
also be kept in mind. The building can be arranged in 5 main groups:
• Administrative / laboratory rooms
• Decontamination and disposal area
• Animal house facilities
• Workshops / stores/garages and
• Residential accommodation for the staff, hospital, schools, playgrounds, parks, shops etc. • The laboratory building may be rectangular in blocks, arranged in L, T or U shapes and may be of one or several stories. The temperature, wind velocity, rainfall,

Introduction

Livestock and livestock products are an important source of food nutrition and livelihood security. Animal origin foods are an important source of high quality protein and micronutrients compared to cereals and plant-based foods. Production of animal- based foods has grown dramatically over the past two decades. Meat, Milk and Egg consumption has grown rapidly in east and Southeast Asia over past twenty years. The greatest increase in the production and consumption of animal-origin foods, as a result of rising incomes and dietary diversification away from staple cereals, has taken place in East and Southeast Asia. World meat markets reveal that the production and trade of bovine meat, poultry meat, pig meat and ovine meat are significant unlike rabbit meat. In spite of many advantages in rabbit farming and rabbit meat, the rabbit meat is less consumed when compared to other meat. So the objective was to study the farmer who involved in rabbit farming.

Genus : Carya
Species : illinoensis (Wangenh) K. Koch.
Family : Juglandaceae
Chromosome No. : 2n = 32

Unlike other temperate nut fruits which have been in cultivation for long history of pecan cultivation is just about one hundred years, and in this short period pecan nut has gained huge popularity on account of its sweet nutty flavour and superb tree characteristics that is symmetrical form, luxuriant dark green shinny foliage with added ornamental value. Pecan nut is a remarkable highly valuable gift of North America to the horticulture of the world, and presently occupies fifth position among the leading nut fruit crops. In United States of America, pecan is recognized as ‘Queen of Nuts’